Limitations on Copyright | Copyrights | INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY

Limitations on Copyright in Philippine Law

The Philippines has adopted specific limitations and exceptions to copyright under Republic Act No. 8293, otherwise known as the Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines. These limitations aim to balance the protection of creators’ rights with the public’s access to knowledge, information, and creative content. Here is a comprehensive guide to the relevant limitations on copyright as stipulated under Philippine law.

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I. Fair Use Doctrine

Section 185 of the IP Code establishes the doctrine of Fair Use, a vital limitation that allows certain uses of copyrighted materials without infringement. Fair use is determined based on the following factors:

1. Purpose and Character of the Use - Non-commercial, educational, or research uses are more likely to be deemed fair use.
2. Nature of the Copyrighted Work - Use of factual or publicly available works, as opposed to highly creative works, is more likely to qualify as fair use.
3. Amount and Substantiality of the Portion Used - Limited use or the use of less substantial parts of a work (not the “heart” of the work) may support a finding of fair use.
4. Effect on the Market for or Value of the Copyrighted Work - Uses that do not significantly impact the market value or potential sales of the original work are more likely to be deemed fair.

Typical cases of fair use include news reporting, commentary, criticism, research, teaching, and scholarship. However, each use must be assessed case-by-case, based on the above factors.

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II. Reproduction and Communication to the Public for Judicial, Legislative, and Administrative Proceedings (Section 184.1)

Section 184.1 permits the reproduction and communication to the public of copyrighted work in official government activities:

• This exception allows use in judicial, legislative, and administrative proceedings.
• It also includes uses in government reports or other official matters that require dissemination to the public for transparency or public record purposes.

This exception supports the principle of public interest and government transparency, allowing the public access to documents, court opinions, or legislative proceedings that might otherwise contain copyrighted materials.

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III. Private and Personal Use (Section 187)

Under Section 187, the IP Code permits reproduction of a published work exclusively for private and personal use. This includes:

• Photocopying or reproducing sections of books or materials for personal study.
• Recording broadcasts or performances for private viewing.

The law places limits on the reproduction to ensure it remains strictly for personal or private use, without further dissemination or public sharing.

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IV. Educational and Non-Profit Use (Sections 187.1 and 188)

Philippine law provides specific allowances for educational purposes:

1. Section 187.1 - Allows the use of copyrighted material in a classroom setting or for educational instruction as long as it is a minor part of the work and does not conflict with the rights of the copyright owner.
2. Section 188 - Allows for reproduction of works for use by public libraries, non-profit educational institutions, and similar establishments. However, this is limited to single copies and is intended solely for purposes like preservation, research, and private study.

These provisions promote access to educational resources and ensure that copyright law does not hinder educational advancement and dissemination of knowledge.

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V. Performance, Display, and Exhibit Exceptions (Section 184.1(b))

Section 184.1(b) permits the performance, display, or exhibit of works in certain circumstances without the author’s consent. These include:

1. Performance of a work in public if it is given without payment to any performer, organizer, or admission fee (e.g., amateur performances in educational institutions).
2. Display or exhibit of works in museums or galleries as part of their collections or educational outreach programs.
3. Broadcasting a live public event to educate or inform the public, without a commercial purpose.

This allows non-commercial and educational displays or performances, helping ensure public access to culture and information.

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VI. Libraries and Archives (Sections 187 and 188)

The IP Code includes specific exceptions for libraries and archives. Section 187 allows libraries and similar institutions to make a single copy of a work for purposes of preservation, research, or private study. Section 188 allows:

• Reproduction of works by libraries and archives, if the work is not available in the Philippines or is rare.
• Temporary copies necessary for preservation of collections, especially if original works are at risk of deterioration or damage.

These provisions support cultural and knowledge preservation, allowing institutions to maintain access to otherwise inaccessible materials.

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VII. Quotation and Parody (Section 184.1(d))

Section 184.1(d) provides for the quotation of short passages and the use of works for parody, caricature, and pastiche. Specific conditions are:

• Quotations must be limited to what is “compatible with fair practice.”
• Parody and satire are permitted to ensure artistic freedom, although they must not serve as a substitute for the original work.

These exceptions enable critical, transformative, and creative uses of copyrighted works, ensuring copyright law supports a free and dynamic culture.

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VIII. Temporary Reproduction by Broadcasting Organizations (Section 190.1)

Under Section 190.1, broadcasting organizations are permitted to make temporary recordings of works for the purposes of transmission:

• Such temporary recordings should be used only for authorized transmissions.
• The recordings are destroyed within a limited period following the broadcast.

This allows broadcasting organizations to efficiently manage their operations while respecting copyright protections.

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IX. Limitations for Persons with Disabilities (Section 185.1)

The IP Code includes provisions to facilitate access to copyrighted materials for persons with disabilities:

• Special formats (e.g., Braille, audio recordings) may be created for personal use without infringing copyright.
• This is in line with the Marrakesh Treaty, to which the Philippines is a signatory, ensuring access to works for visually impaired or otherwise print-disabled persons.

This exception aligns with the Philippines’ commitment to making educational and cultural content accessible to all members of society, regardless of physical or sensory impairments.

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X. Government Use (Section 184.1(a))

Philippine copyright law allows the government to use copyrighted material for non-commercial purposes, especially for purposes related to public interest or national security. Uses might include:

• Incorporation of copyrighted materials into governmental publications or information campaigns.
• Reproduction and dissemination of works necessary for public safety or educational programs under government authority.

This promotes access to vital information that might otherwise be limited by copyright barriers.

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Conclusion

The limitations on copyright in Philippine law, as defined by the Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines, aim to balance the rights of authors and creators with the public’s right to access knowledge, education, culture, and information. By detailing specific exceptions—such as fair use, educational provisions, library usage, and access for persons with disabilities—the law seeks to provide a flexible, fair, and socially responsible framework. These limitations are vital to ensuring that copyright law serves both the rights of creators and the public good, fostering a culture that values both innovation and access to knowledge.

Ownership of a Copyright | Copyrights | INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY

Ownership of Copyright Under Philippine Law

Under Philippine law, copyright is primarily governed by Republic Act No. 8293, known as the Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines (IP Code), enacted in 1997 and further amended by subsequent legislation. Here is a comprehensive analysis of the topic of copyright ownership, covering everything from the basics of copyrightability to the complex nuances surrounding transfer and licensure in the Philippines.

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I. Copyrightable Works

Copyright is granted to authors of original intellectual creations in the literary, scholarly, scientific, and artistic domains. Copyrightable works include:

1. Literary and Artistic Works: This category encompasses books, poems, articles, musical works, films, and other similar creations.
2. Derivative Works: Works based on original pieces, such as translations or adaptations, qualify for copyright protection, though the original author’s rights must be respected.
3. Non-Copyrightable Elements: Mere ideas, news, government publications, statutes, and mere compilations of data are not subject to copyright.

For a work to be protected under copyright law, it must be an original creation, fixed in a tangible medium of expression.

II. Ownership of Copyright

Ownership of a copyright is distinct from the ownership of the physical object in which the copyrighted work is embodied. It is essential to understand the parties who may claim ownership under the IP Code.

1. General Rule: Author as Owner

   • The author or creator of a work is generally presumed to be the copyright owner.
   • Moral Rights: In addition to economic rights, authors have moral rights, including the right to attribution and the right to protect their work from derogatory treatment.

2. Joint Ownership

   • When two or more individuals jointly create a work, they are co-owners of the copyright, unless there is a written agreement specifying otherwise.
   • Each co-owner has an undivided interest in the whole work but must account to the other for any profits derived from the work.

3. Works Created by Employees

   • Employer-Owned Works: If an employee creates a work in the course of employment, and if the work is created as part of their job duties, the employer is presumed to be the copyright owner, unless agreed otherwise.
   • Freelance or Commissioned Works: For works created by independent contractors or freelancers, the creator retains copyright unless there is a written agreement transferring ownership to the hiring party.

4. Government Works

   • Works created by government employees in their official capacity are generally in the public domain, unless otherwise stipulated by the agency or department.

5. Special Cases: Collective Works and Audiovisual Works

   • Collective Works: In collective works (e.g., anthologies), copyright ownership typically resides with the entity assembling the collective work, though the original authors retain rights over their individual contributions unless otherwise agreed.
   • Audiovisual Works: Copyright in audiovisual works (e.g., movies) is owned by the producer, who holds rights to exploit the entire work. However, individual contributors (such as screenwriters and directors) may retain moral rights.

III. Economic and Moral Rights of Copyright Owners

Copyright owners possess several economic rights that allow them to control the use of their work. They also have moral rights that protect the personal and reputational interests related to the work.

1. Economic Rights

   • The copyright owner has the exclusive right to:
     • Reproduce the work
     • Distribute copies of the work
     • Perform the work publicly
     • Display the work publicly
     • Create derivative works based on the original

2. Moral Rights

   • Moral rights allow the author to claim authorship, object to modifications that could harm their reputation, and withdraw the work from the public domain under certain conditions. These rights remain with the author even after the transfer of economic rights.

IV. Transfer of Copyright Ownership

Ownership of economic rights may be transferred in whole or in part through various means, but moral rights are inalienable and cannot be transferred.

1. Assignment of Rights

   • The copyright owner may transfer their economic rights by assignment, which must be in writing and signed by the copyright owner.
   • Assignments can be total or partial and are governed by the terms set out in the assignment agreement.

2. Licensing

   • Copyright can also be licensed, allowing others to use the work under specific conditions, without transferring ownership.
   • Licenses may be exclusive or non-exclusive:
     • Exclusive License: Only the licensee may exploit the licensed rights, and the licensor is excluded from using those rights.
     • Non-Exclusive License: The copyright owner retains the right to license the work to multiple users.

3. Statutory Limitations on Transfer

   • Under the IP Code, certain rights may be retained by the author despite an assignment, especially moral rights.

4. Duration of Copyright Protection and Renewal

   • The duration of copyright protection depends on the type of work:
     • Literary and Artistic Works: Lifetime of the author plus 50 years.
     • Audiovisual and Collective Works: 50 years from the date of publication.
   • After the expiration of the copyright term, the work enters the public domain, and anyone may use it freely.

V. Enforcement of Copyright Ownership

The IP Code provides mechanisms for copyright holders to enforce their rights and seek remedies in cases of infringement.

1. Civil Remedies

   • Copyright owners can seek an injunction to stop further infringement, claim actual or statutory damages, and recover profits made by the infringer.

2. Criminal Remedies

   • Infringement can also be a criminal offense, punishable by imprisonment and fines. However, criminal action is typically reserved for severe and deliberate violations.

3. Administrative Remedies

   • The Intellectual Property Office of the Philippines (IPOPHL) provides an avenue for resolving disputes through mediation or administrative proceedings.

4. Technological Protection Measures (TPM)

   • Copyright holders can apply TPMs to prevent unauthorized access or copying of their works. Circumventing these protections is prohibited by law.

VI. Special Considerations and Updates in Philippine Copyright Law

1. Digital Rights Management

   • Copyright law increasingly recognizes digital rights management (DRM) as a critical area, especially for online content. DRM tools help copyright holders manage and protect digital versions of their works.

2. International Agreements

   • The Philippines is a signatory to various international treaties such as the Berne Convention and the WIPO Copyright Treaty. These agreements influence domestic laws by establishing standards for copyright protection globally.

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Summary

The ownership of copyright in the Philippines is an intricate subject, with the general rule that the author holds the rights, subject to exceptions for employment, government works, and specific cases like audiovisual works. Transfers of ownership are possible through assignment or licensing, although moral rights remain with the author. The IP Code ensures both economic and moral rights protection and provides mechanisms for enforcement, while also adapting to digital-age requirements through DRM protections and adherence to international treaties.

The field of copyright is continuously evolving, especially with technological advancements and international influence, making it essential for copyright owners and users in the Philippines to stay informed about their rights and obligations.

Rights Conferred by Copyright | Copyrights | INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY

Here is a thorough exposition on Rights Conferred by Copyright under Philippine law, with a focus on its nuances within mercantile and taxation laws.

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Copyright Law in the Philippines: Legal Foundations

In the Philippines, copyright protection is governed by the Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines (Republic Act No. 8293), which aligns with international standards under the Berne Convention and the TRIPS Agreement. This law provides the legal framework for protecting original works of authorship, ensuring that creators have exclusive rights to their creations, whether literary, artistic, or derivative works. Copyright exists from the moment of creation and is conferred without the need for registration, though registration can offer additional procedural benefits.

Scope and Duration of Copyright Protection

1. Protected Works: Copyright in the Philippines protects a broad range of works, including:

   • Literary, dramatic, musical, and artistic works;
   • Audio-visual works, films, sound recordings, and broadcasts;
   • Derivative works, adaptations, arrangements, and collections of work;
   • Computer programs and databases;
   • Architectural plans and structures;
   • Other intellectual creations as designated by law.

2. Duration of Protection:

   • Literary and Artistic Works: Lifetime of the author plus 50 years after death.
   • Photographic Works and Audio-Visual Works: 50 years from publication date.
   • Anonymous or Pseudonymous Works: 50 years from publication unless the author becomes known.
   • Broadcasts: 20 years from date of broadcast.

Exclusive Rights of Copyright Owners

Copyright confers a set of exclusive economic and moral rights to the author or copyright holder, which can be exploited or licensed to third parties:

1. Economic Rights: These rights allow the copyright holder to commercially benefit from the work:

   • Reproduction: The right to reproduce the work in any form, including electronic, photographic, or printed formats.
   • Transformation and Adaptation: The right to transform, adapt, or arrange the work.
   • Public Distribution: The right to distribute copies of the work to the public by sale, rental, lease, or lending.
   • Public Display: The right to display the work publicly, either in physical or digital form.
   • Public Performance: The right to perform the work publicly, which covers live or recorded performances, broadcasts, or streaming.
   • Communication to the Public: The right to communicate the work to the public through broadcasting, transmission, or other means.
   • Translation: The right to translate the work into other languages or formats.

2. Moral Rights: These rights protect the personal connection between the author and the work and include:

   • Right of Attribution: The author’s right to claim authorship.
   • Right to Make Modifications: The author’s right to modify the work or withhold permission for any distortion or mutilation of the work.
   • Right of Integrity: Protecting the reputation of the author by preventing any modifications that may harm their reputation.
   • Right to Withdraw the Work from Circulation: The author may choose to withdraw the work from the public domain, although subject to equitable compensation for those with acquired rights.

3. Related Rights:

   • The rights of performers, producers of sound recordings, and broadcasting organizations are also protected under copyright law.
   • Performers have the right to prevent unauthorized recording or broadcasting of their performances.
   • Producers have the right to control reproductions of sound recordings.
   • Broadcasting organizations have exclusive rights over the broadcast signals they produce.

Limitations and Exceptions (Fair Use Doctrine)

Philippine law recognizes fair use exceptions, allowing limited use of copyrighted works without permission, provided the use does not infringe the economic rights of the copyright holder. This includes:

• Research and Private Study: Limited copying for personal use or educational research.
• Criticism, Comment, and News Reporting: Use for purposes of review, criticism, or news coverage.
• Parody and Satire: Limited copying for creating transformative works, such as parodies.
• Educational Purposes: Use in classrooms, subject to limitations.

To determine if a use qualifies as fair, courts evaluate factors like the purpose, nature, amount, and effect on the work’s market value.

Mercantile Implications of Copyright

1. Commercial Exploitation:

   • Copyright owners can license or assign rights to third parties for exploitation, creating revenue streams through royalties or sale.
   • Licensing must be clear in scope, often specifying the term, geography, and exact rights granted.

2. Taxation on Copyright Transactions:

   • Income derived from licensing and royalty agreements is subject to income tax under the Philippine Tax Code.
   • Royalties are also subject to withholding tax, with rates varying depending on treaties (e.g., the Philippines’ double-taxation treaties).
   • Capital gains tax applies if copyright ownership is transferred as a capital asset.

3. Cross-Border Transactions:

   • When dealing with international licenses or assignments, copyright holders may benefit from lower withholding tax rates if covered by double-taxation treaties.
   • Foreign copyrights utilized in the Philippines are subject to local tax if deemed income from Philippine sources.

4. Valuation for Tax Purposes:

   • Intellectual property rights are treated as intangible assets, and their valuation depends on potential revenue-generating capacity.
   • Transfers involving copyright may be scrutinized by tax authorities to ensure compliance with transfer pricing rules, especially for multinational companies.

5. Tax Incentives for Copyright Owners:

   • Copyright-intensive industries may qualify for tax incentives under the Philippine Board of Investments (BOI), which provides deductions or exemptions for companies engaged in intellectual property exploitation, development, or innovation.

Infringement and Enforcement Mechanisms

1. Infringement Definition: Copyright infringement occurs when a party violates the exclusive rights of a copyright holder without permission. This can include unauthorized reproduction, distribution, public performance, or adaptation.

2. Civil and Criminal Penalties:

   • Civil remedies include injunctions, actual damages, moral damages, exemplary damages, and attorney’s fees.
   • Criminal penalties apply to severe infringements, including fines and imprisonment for counterfeit distribution, unauthorized reproduction, or commercial-scale infringement.

3. Enforcement through the Intellectual Property Office (IPO):

   • The Intellectual Property Office of the Philippines (IPO) has an enforcement arm that handles complaints, mediates disputes, and can issue cease-and-desist orders.
   • IPO allows for Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) as a method to settle disputes involving copyright claims efficiently.

4. Border Measures:

   • Philippine Customs authorities, under coordination with IPO, can seize or prevent the importation of counterfeit goods.
   • Copyright holders can file a complaint with Customs for surveillance and inspection to protect against infringement.

Conclusion

In the Philippines, copyright law grants substantial exclusive rights to creators, allowing them to control and profit from their works while ensuring moral rights are respected. However, these rights are balanced with fair use provisions and are subject to various tax implications and regulatory requirements, especially for commercial exploitation. The legal mechanisms to enforce these rights are robust, with options for civil, criminal, and administrative recourse. The interplay between intellectual property rights and mercantile laws, particularly in the realm of taxation, illustrates the complexity of navigating copyright in commercial ventures in the Philippines.

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This analysis provides an in-depth understanding of copyright rights, enforcement, and their intersection with mercantile and tax laws in the Philippines, helping you to navigate this intricate legal landscape confidently.

Non-Copyrightable Works | Copyrights | INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY

Non-Copyrightable Works in Philippine Law: An In-Depth Analysis

Under Philippine intellectual property law, particularly the Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines (Republic Act No. 8293), copyright protection does not extend to certain types of works, commonly referred to as "non-copyrightable works." Understanding what constitutes non-copyrightable material is essential for legal practitioners, especially in fields where intellectual property concerns intersect with technology, media, and business. This guide outlines and analyzes the key categories of non-copyrightable works, with insights from relevant cases, policy interpretations, and practical considerations.

I. Statutory Basis for Non-Copyrightable Works

The primary legislation governing copyright law in the Philippines, Republic Act No. 8293 (RA 8293), provides specific guidance on copyrightable subject matter. Section 172 defines copyrightable works, and Section 175 explicitly outlines types of works not covered by copyright protection. This section's clarity helps delineate which works fall outside copyright protection.

According to Section 175, the following materials are explicitly classified as non-copyrightable:

1. Laws, Rules, and Official Issuances

   • This includes legislative enactments, administrative regulations, judicial decisions, and public records.
   • Rationale: These documents belong to the public domain because they are created by public officers as part of their duties and are necessary for public awareness and compliance. Additionally, copyright on these would restrict access to legal, regulatory, and judicial information, which would contravene public policy favoring transparency.

2. Government Works Created by Public Officers and Employees

   • This encompasses works produced by government agencies or public officers within the scope of their employment, including reports, statistical data, and other official documents.
   • Exceptions exist for works created under a contractual arrangement where copyright ownership is specifically assigned.
   • Implication: Works created under government commissions or collaborations with private entities may retain copyright if there is a clear contractual stipulation. However, these works must meet specific terms that separate them from typical government-created materials.

3. News of the Day and Mere Facts

   • News itself, including current events, cannot be copyrighted, although the expression or way it is presented can be.
   • Explanation: RA 8293 protects only the “original expression” of an idea and not the idea or fact itself. For example, a news article’s narrative style may be copyrighted, but the facts it conveys remain in the public domain.

4. Ideas, Procedures, Systems, Methods, and Principles

   • These non-copyrightable items extend to mathematical formulas, scientific theories, and business methods.
   • While these can form the basis for patents (if novel and applicable), they are excluded from copyright protection because they are conceptual frameworks, not fixed expressions of an idea.

5. Standard Forms, Familiar Phrases, and Expressions

   • Common phrases, proverbs, slogans, and simple forms used in ordinary activities (such as blank forms) are not copyrightable.
   • Rationale: The lack of original expression in these elements renders them outside the scope of copyright. Copyright law protects unique expression, not standard language or formats.

II. Additional Judicial and Administrative Interpretations

Philippine courts and intellectual property tribunals have further clarified these exclusions in several key cases:

• Case Law on Public Domain Works: Philippine jurisprudence has consistently upheld the view that government-created works are non-copyrightable when performed within an official capacity. This aligns with the principle that government works belong to the people.

• Media and Broadcasting Interpretations: Cases involving media and news agencies underscore that while factual reporting on events is not protected, the unique expression (e.g., an article’s specific style) is safeguarded. This demarcation aims to prevent monopolization of information dissemination while encouraging creative journalistic expression.

III. Theoretical Underpinnings and Policy Rationales

The Intellectual Property Office (IPO) of the Philippines and legislative history indicate that non-copyrightability stems from three main policy considerations:

1. Public Access to Essential Information: Works like laws, rules, and government documents must remain freely accessible to promote public knowledge, legal compliance, and civic engagement.
2. Promotion of Creativity and Innovation: By reserving copyright for original, expressive works, the law encourages creativity while ensuring that fundamental ideas and systems remain accessible for further development and application.
3. Avoidance of Monopolistic Control over Knowledge: Limiting copyright to expressions, rather than ideas or factual information, prevents the monopolization of knowledge and supports democratic information-sharing principles.

IV. Practical Implications for Various Sectors

For legal and commercial practitioners, understanding the limits of copyright protection has several implications:

• Media and Publishing: Journalists and publishers must navigate copyright law by emphasizing original expression in their reporting. While they can protect their specific writing style, the underlying information is accessible to all.

• Software and Technology Development: Tech companies must be cautious about relying on copyright for protection of ideas, algorithms, or processes, which are often better protected through patents, trade secrets, or specific contractual agreements.

• Legal Document Drafting: Lawyers drafting official documents for government agencies must acknowledge that these works typically fall into the public domain unless explicitly specified otherwise in a contract.

V. The Emerging Challenges in Digital and Internet Contexts

The rise of digital content and internet-based information sharing has raised new questions about the limits of copyright law. Social media, data aggregation, and online publishing have led to cases where the boundaries between copyrightable and non-copyrightable works blur. As a response, the IPO has occasionally issued guidelines clarifying digital copyright issues, although these are continually evolving.

• User-Generated Content and News Aggregators: Social media and news aggregation sites pose challenges as users can share news, opinions, and facts instantly. While these platforms can copyright their overall design and specific content, the factual data or news they share remains non-copyrightable.

• Data Collection and Analysis: In sectors where data analysis and algorithms are central, such as fintech and marketing, companies must often rely on trade secret protection or patents rather than copyright to protect proprietary methods.

VI. Conclusion

In the Philippines, non-copyrightable works are clearly defined by RA 8293 and further clarified through court rulings and IPO guidelines. The law’s approach to non-copyrightable works reflects a commitment to public access, creativity, and innovation. Legal practitioners must stay updated on emerging interpretations in the digital age to effectively navigate these areas. As technology evolves, further clarifications and perhaps legislative adjustments may be required to address the complexities of copyright law in an increasingly digital society.

This analysis provides a robust foundation for understanding non-copyrightable works, vital for protecting intellectual property while adhering to the Philippines' legal framework and public policy objectives.

Copyrightable Works | Copyrights | INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY

MERCANTILE AND TAXATION LAWS > V. INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY > C. Copyrights > 1. Copyrightable Works

In the Philippines, copyright law is governed by the Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines (Republic Act No. 8293), which delineates the scope of intellectual property rights, including copyrightable works. This section will explore all relevant aspects of what constitutes copyrightable works under Philippine law, addressing the rights of creators, exclusions, and nuances of copyright protection.

1. Definition and Scope of Copyrightable Works

• General Definition: Copyright is the legal protection granted to the creators of original literary, scholarly, scientific, artistic, and derivative works. It grants the creator an exclusive right to use, distribute, and benefit economically from their creations.
• Statutory Basis: Section 172 of the Intellectual Property Code outlines the types of works eligible for copyright protection.

2. Categories of Copyrightable Works

The following categories, as provided in Section 172, represent types of works that qualify for copyright:

• Literary and Artistic Works:
  • Books, pamphlets, articles, periodicals, and other written works.
  • Lectures, sermons, addresses, dissertations, prepared for oral delivery.
  • Letters and any form of written communication.
  • Musical compositions, whether with or without lyrics.
  • Dramatic, choreographic, and pantomimic works, or works prepared for stage or production.
  • Graphic works, paintings, sculptures, and other works of fine art.
  • Photographic works, cinematographic works, and other audio-visual creations.
  • Computer programs and similar works, which are protected as literary works.
• Derivative Works: Works that are derived from pre-existing works, like adaptations, translations, and arrangements, are copyrightable as long as they have significant original creative input.
• Collective Works: Works resulting from the combination of multiple authors’ contributions, such as anthologies and encyclopedias, are also protected if they present a creative arrangement.

3. Requirements for Copyright Protection

• Originality: For a work to be copyrightable, it must exhibit originality. This does not require novelty but rather that the work be independently created and that it involves some degree of creativity.
• Fixation: The work must be fixed in a tangible medium, meaning it must exist in a form that can be perceived, reproduced, or communicated for a period of time, like paper, recording, digital files, or sculptures.

4. Non-Copyrightable Works

Certain works are not eligible for copyright protection under Philippine law, primarily because they lack originality, are too factual, or are intended for public use without restriction. These include:

• Ideas, Procedures, and Systems: Abstract ideas, methods, procedures, processes, systems, discoveries, or concepts are not protected.
• Official Government Works: This includes statutes, regulations, court decisions, speeches delivered in public hearings, and other public documents.
• Public Domain: Works that have entered the public domain due to the expiration of copyright or because the copyright owner has waived rights.

5. Duration of Copyright Protection

• General Rule: For literary and artistic works, copyright generally lasts for the lifetime of the author plus fifty (50) years after their death.
• Anonymous or Pseudonymous Works: For works published anonymously or under a pseudonym, protection lasts fifty (50) years from the date of publication.
• Audiovisual Works: The copyright for audiovisual works, such as cinematographic films, lasts fifty (50) years from the date of publication or completion.
• Photographic Works: Copyright protection for photographs and other similar works lasts fifty (50) years from creation or publication.

6. Economic and Moral Rights of Authors

• Economic Rights: These include the rights to reproduce the work, distribute copies, perform or display the work publicly, and make derivative works. These are often transferable and assignable, and they can be licensed to others.
• Moral Rights: Authors retain moral rights to claim authorship, make modifications, prevent any derogatory action against the work, and control its future uses in a way that might harm their honor or reputation. Moral rights are non-transferable and last during the author’s lifetime and up to fifty (50) years post-mortem.

7. Fair Use and Limitations on Copyright

Certain uses of copyrighted material do not constitute infringement, provided that they fall under the doctrine of "fair use." This includes:

• Fair Use Provisions: These allow for limited use of copyrighted material for purposes such as criticism, comment, news reporting, education, and research. Courts evaluate fair use based on purpose, nature, amount, and effect on market value.
• Other Limitations: Private performance, reproduction for personal use, quotations for commentary, and public speeches may be exempt from infringement claims.

8. Registration and Deposits

• Optional Registration: Copyright is acquired automatically upon creation, and registration with the National Library or the Intellectual Property Office of the Philippines is optional but provides evidence in case of a dispute.
• Deposits: Certain works may require deposit copies to be submitted to relevant authorities, which aids in documenting and preserving cultural materials.

9. Transfer and Licensing of Copyright

• Assignments and Licensing: Copyright holders may transfer or license their economic rights to others through contracts. This transfer or licensing agreement must be documented in writing.
• License Types: Exclusive and non-exclusive licenses are recognized, allowing rights holders to permit others to use their work under certain conditions and for a specified period.

10. Infringement and Remedies

• Infringement Criteria: Unauthorized use, reproduction, distribution, or public display of copyrighted works constitutes infringement.
• Remedies: Remedies for infringement include damages, injunctions, and, in some cases, criminal penalties.
• Safe Harbor and Limitations: Certain intermediaries, such as internet service providers, have safe harbor protection, provided they comply with take-down procedures for infringing content upon notice.

11. International Considerations

The Philippines is a member of various international treaties on copyright, such as the Berne Convention and TRIPS Agreement, which establishes minimum standards for copyright protection and enables reciprocal enforcement across member countries.

Conclusion

Philippine copyright law under RA 8293 provides a robust framework for protecting the economic and moral rights of authors over copyrightable works. Through the defined categories, requirements, and protections, authors and creators are afforded substantial control over their creations, while also balancing public access through fair use and other limitations. As the digital environment grows, these laws continue to evolve, adapting to new challenges and advancements in protecting intellectual property in the Philippines.

Copyrights | INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY

Comprehensive Guide on Copyrights in the Philippines under Mercantile and Taxation Laws

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I. Overview of Copyright Law in the Philippines

Copyright is a form of intellectual property that grants creators exclusive rights to their literary, artistic, and scholarly works. In the Philippines, copyright protection is primarily governed by the Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines (Republic Act No. 8293), which provides comprehensive rules on the scope, ownership, and enforcement of copyright, as well as the penalties for infringement. RA 8293 aligns Philippine copyright laws with global standards, notably under the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works and the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS).

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II. Key Concepts in Philippine Copyright Law

1. Protected Works
   Copyright protection applies to original intellectual creations in the literary, scientific, and artistic domains. These include:

   • Books, pamphlets, articles, and other writings;
   • Periodicals and newspapers;
   • Lectures, sermons, addresses, dissertations prepared for oral delivery;
   • Musical compositions, with or without words;
   • Dramatic or dramatico-musical compositions, choreographic works;
   • Artistic works, such as paintings, sculptures, drawings, and works of architecture;
   • Photographic and cinematographic works;
   • Illustrations, maps, plans, sketches, and three-dimensional works relative to geography, topography, and architecture;
   • Audio-visual works and sound recordings;
   • Broadcasts and computer programs;
   • Derivative works and compilations that feature original selection, coordination, or arrangement.

2. Non-Protected Works
   Certain works are not eligible for copyright, including:

   • Ideas, procedures, systems, methods, concepts, principles, discoveries, or mere data as such;
   • News of the day and other miscellaneous facts;
   • Official texts of legislative, administrative, or legal nature, as well as their official translations.

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III. Rights Granted to Copyright Owners

1. Economic Rights Economic rights enable the copyright owner to control and monetize their work. These rights include:

   • Reproduction – The right to make copies of the work.
   • Derivative Works – The right to create adaptations, modifications, or other derivative works.
   • Distribution – The right to distribute copies to the public.
   • Public Performance – The right to perform the work in public.
   • Public Display – The right to display the work publicly.
   • Digital Transmission – The right to communicate the work via electronic means.

2. Moral Rights Moral rights are personal to the author and include:

   • Attribution – The right to be recognized as the author.
   • Integrity – The right to object to any derogatory modifications.
   • Alteration Prevention – The right to prevent others from altering or distorting the work.

3. Duration of Protection

   • For Original Works: Lifetime of the author plus 50 years after their death.
   • For Joint Works: 50 years from the death of the last surviving author.
   • For Audiovisual Works: 50 years from the date of publication.
   • For Anonymous or Pseudonymous Works: 50 years from the date of publication.
   • For Photographic Works and Applied Art: 50 years from publication.

4. Transfer of Copyright
   Copyright is transferrable through assignment, licensing, or inheritance. Transfers must be documented in writing and require the author's consent.

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IV. Exceptions and Limitations (Fair Use Doctrine)

Under Section 185 of the IP Code, specific uses of copyrighted work are permitted without authorization. These exceptions include:

• Educational Use – Reproduction for teaching purposes.
• News Reporting – Use in news reporting, commentary, or criticism.
• Library and Archive Use – Reproduction by libraries or archives for preservation.
• Parody and Satire – Limited use for transformative purposes.
• Research and Private Study – Copying for personal, non-commercial research.

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V. Copyright Infringement

1. Definition and Acts of Infringement
   Infringement occurs when someone uses copyrighted work without permission or violates the exclusive rights of the owner. Common infringements include:

   • Unauthorized reproduction, distribution, or display of copyrighted works.
   • Creating unauthorized derivative works.
   • Digital infringement, such as illegal downloads and streaming.

2. Penalties and Remedies
   Violators are subject to both civil and criminal penalties:

   • Civil Penalties – Damages, injunctions, and payment of profits earned from infringement.
   • Criminal Penalties – Fines ranging from PHP 50,000 to PHP 500,000 and imprisonment from one to nine years, depending on the nature and extent of the infringement.

3. Additional Remedies under the IP Code

   • Injunctions – Court orders to stop infringing activities.
   • Destruction of Infringing Goods – Destruction or disposal of infringing copies.
   • Payment of Damages – Compensatory damages or statutory damages, whichever is greater.

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VI. Copyright Collective Management

The Philippines allows collective management organizations (CMOs) to manage the rights of multiple copyright holders. CMOs, like the Filipino Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers (FILSCAP), facilitate licensing, collection of royalties, and enforcement of rights on behalf of authors and creators.

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VII. Tax Implications of Copyright Income

1. Income Tax on Royalties
   Authors and copyright holders in the Philippines must report royalties as part of their taxable income. Under the National Internal Revenue Code (NIRC):

   • Resident Citizens – Taxed on royalties at a rate of 10%.
   • Non-Resident Aliens – Subject to a 25% final withholding tax on royalties from Philippine sources.

2. VAT on Licensing and Transfer of Copyrights
   Licensing and transfer of copyright are VATable transactions, subject to the 12% VAT rate if the licensor is a VAT-registered entity. Exemptions may apply for educational materials and government-recognized organizations.

3. Withholding Tax on Foreign Royalties
   Foreign entities earning royalties from Philippine sources are subject to withholding tax. Tax treaties may reduce this rate, but applicable procedures for claiming treaty benefits must be followed.

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VIII. Copyright and E-Commerce

1. Online Infringement and Liability
   Digital copyright violations have surged with the advent of e-commerce. The Philippine Cybercrime Prevention Act of 2012 (RA 10175) and the Electronic Commerce Act of 2000 (RA 8792) provide specific mechanisms for dealing with digital copyright infringement.

2. Notice and Takedown Procedures
   Platforms must establish notice and takedown systems, allowing copyright holders to notify service providers of infringing content. Providers must promptly remove infringing material to avoid liability.

3. Digital Rights Management (DRM)
   The law recognizes DRM tools as enforceable mechanisms. Circumvention of DRM is considered an infringement, and violators are subject to the same penalties applicable to other forms of copyright violations.

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IX. Practical Tips for Copyright Holders

1. Registration
   Although copyright protection is automatic upon creation, authors are encouraged to register their works with the National Library or the Intellectual Property Office of the Philippines (IPOPHL). Registration provides additional evidentiary value in infringement cases.

2. Regular Monitoring
   Copyright owners should monitor the use of their work, especially online. Tools like IPOPHL’s Intellectual Property Rights Enforcement Office (IEO) offer support in handling complaints and enforcement requests.

3. Legal Representation
   Authors and copyright owners are advised to engage IP lawyers or copyright experts to navigate licensing, enforce rights, and handle disputes effectively.

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This comprehensive guide should serve as a solid foundation for understanding the scope and enforcement of copyright laws in the Philippines, as well as the rights, protections, and legal implications for creators under Philippine mercantile and taxation laws.

Ownership, Registration, and Duration | Trademarks | INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY

Trademarks in Philippine Law: Ownership, Registration, and Duration

In the Philippines, trademark law is primarily governed by the Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines (Republic Act No. 8293), which was enacted to align local intellectual property laws with international standards, including the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS). This legislation regulates ownership, registration, protection, and enforcement of trademarks. Here’s a comprehensive overview of the principles and regulations surrounding ownership, registration, and duration of trademarks in the Philippines:

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1. Ownership of Trademarks

• Definition of Trademark: A trademark is defined under Section 121.1 of the IP Code as any visible sign capable of distinguishing goods (or services, in the case of service marks) of an enterprise.

• Rights Conferred by Ownership: Trademark ownership in the Philippines is based on the principle of first-to-file rather than first-to-use. This means that trademark rights are generally conferred through registration, although use can establish a degree of goodwill that may provide limited protection under unfair competition principles.

• Acquisition of Ownership: Ownership is acquired through:

  • Registration: The primary method of acquiring rights to a trademark. The applicant who first files an application will have priority in ownership.
  • Limited Recognition of Prior Use: Although registration is required for ownership, prior use may serve as a defense against claims of unfair competition.

• Scope of Ownership: Trademark ownership grants the exclusive right to use the mark for the registered goods or services, allowing the owner to prevent others from using identical or confusingly similar marks within the same market segment.

2. Registration Process

• The Application: The registration process for trademarks involves submitting an application to the Intellectual Property Office of the Philippines (IPOPHL), along with required documents and fees. The application must include:

  • The applicant’s name and address,
  • A representation of the trademark,
  • The goods or services the mark will cover, and
  • Any claim of priority if applicable.

• Examination Process:

  • Formal Examination: IPOPHL reviews whether the application complies with formal requirements.
  • Substantive Examination: After passing the formal examination, the application undergoes substantive examination to check for conflicts with prior registered marks and compliance with the grounds for refusal.

• Grounds for Refusal of Registration:

  • Absolute Grounds: Section 123.1 of the IP Code provides that a mark cannot be registered if it is descriptive, generic, deceptive, or contrary to public order or morality.
  • Relative Grounds: Registration can also be refused if the mark is identical or confusingly similar to an existing registered mark for similar goods or services.

• Publication and Opposition: Once approved, the trademark application is published in the IPOPHL Gazette. Any party with valid grounds can file an opposition within 30 days, challenging the application based on prior rights, confusion likelihood, or other concerns.

• Registration and Issuance of Certificate: If no opposition is filed or if the opposition is resolved in favor of the applicant, the mark proceeds to registration, and a Certificate of Registration is issued. This certificate is prima facie evidence of ownership.

• Registration Based on International Agreements:

  • Madrid Protocol: As a signatory to the Madrid Protocol, the Philippines allows for international trademark registration, enabling applicants to file trademarks in multiple jurisdictions with a single application through the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO).

3. Duration of Trademark Protection

• Initial Registration Period: A trademark registration in the Philippines is valid for ten (10) years from the date of issuance of the Certificate of Registration, as per Section 145 of the IP Code.

• Renewal of Registration:

  • Registrations may be renewed indefinitely for successive ten-year periods.
  • The renewal application must be filed within six months before the expiration date. However, a grace period of six months after the expiration date is allowed, subject to payment of additional fees.

• Declaration of Actual Use (DAU): The IP Code requires that the trademark owner must file a Declaration of Actual Use to maintain the registration, demonstrating that the mark is actively used in commerce:

  • First DAU: Due within three years from the filing date of the application.
  • Subsequent DAUs: Must be filed within one year following each successive five-year period after registration.

• Consequences of Non-Use:

  • Cancellation of Registration: A trademark may be canceled if the owner fails to file the DAU or if the mark is not used for three consecutive years without valid justification.
  • Defense Against Non-Use: Justifiable reasons, such as import restrictions or regulatory delays, may exempt the owner from cancellation due to non-use.

4. Rights and Remedies of Trademark Owners

• Exclusive Right to Use and License: The trademark owner holds exclusive rights to use the mark in commerce and may authorize others to use it under a licensing agreement.

• Infringement and Unfair Competition:

  • Trademark infringement involves unauthorized use of a registered mark, which may confuse consumers.
  • Remedies include civil action, preliminary injunctions, damages, and, in some cases, criminal penalties.
  • Unfair Competition under Article 189 of the Revised Penal Code and Section 168 of the IP Code provides limited protection for marks not formally registered but enjoying market goodwill.

• Protection Against Dilution: Under the IP Code, owners of well-known trademarks can also claim protection from the dilution of their marks, especially against actions that may erode the distinctiveness of the brand.

5. Special Considerations for Foreign Trademark Owners

• National Treatment: Foreign nationals and companies have equal rights and remedies for trademark protection in the Philippines, consistent with TRIPS and other international conventions.
• Paris Convention and Priority Rights: Foreign applicants from countries that are members of the Paris Convention can claim a priority filing date based on an earlier application in their home country, provided they file in the Philippines within six months.

Summary of Key Points:

• Ownership of a trademark in the Philippines is primarily based on registration, and the first-to-file rule applies.
• The registration process involves formal and substantive examination, publication, and opposition.
• Trademarks are protected for an initial period of ten years, renewable indefinitely, subject to actual use requirements.
• Rights conferred by trademark ownership include exclusive usage, licensing, and remedies for infringement, dilution, and unfair competition.
• Foreign owners benefit from national treatment and international priority rights in alignment with global agreements.

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This framework ensures robust protections for trademark owners in the Philippines while upholding fair competition principles.

Non-Registrable Marks | Trademarks | INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY

Non-Registrable Marks in Philippine Trademark Law

In Philippine law, the Intellectual Property Code (IP Code) of the Philippines, primarily under Republic Act No. 8293, governs trademarks and service marks. It provides specific guidance on registrable and non-registrable marks to protect the interests of both businesses and consumers, ensuring clarity in the marketplace. Under Section 123 of the IP Code, certain types of marks are deemed non-registrable, as they do not meet the statutory requirements. Here is a detailed examination of these non-registrable marks:

1. Marks That Are Devoid of Distinctive Character (Section 123.1(a))

• Non-Distinctive Marks: Marks that lack distinctiveness cannot be registered. Distinctiveness is a core characteristic that enables consumers to identify and distinguish a product's origin. Examples of non-distinctive marks include:
  • Generic words (e.g., "water" for bottled water).
  • Common or everyday phrases that don't denote a specific product or brand identity.
• Acquired Distinctiveness (Secondary Meaning): If a mark initially lacks distinctiveness, it may still become registrable if it acquires a secondary meaning. This occurs when the mark becomes strongly associated with a specific business in the minds of the public over time.

2. Marks That Are Contrary to Public Order or Morality (Section 123.1(b))

• Marks that are immoral, scandalous, or offensive to a broad section of society cannot be registered. This includes obscene, blasphemous, or offensive words, symbols, or images.
• Protecting public interest: The non-registrability of such marks aims to protect public morals and maintain societal standards.

3. Marks Consisting Exclusively of Signs or Indications that Serve in Trade (Section 123.1(c))

• This provision covers marks that only indicate the quality, quantity, intended purpose, value, geographic origin, or other descriptive elements related to the goods or services.
• Examples:
  • Descriptive terms like "fresh" for fruits or "strong" for building materials.
  • Geographical names solely referring to the origin of the goods or services, like "Cebu Lechon" (which describes pork dishes from Cebu).
• Descriptive Marks with Acquired Distinctiveness: Similar to non-distinctive marks, descriptive marks may be registrable if they acquire a unique association with a brand over time, thereby gaining a secondary meaning.

4. Marks That Are Customary in Current Language or in Bona Fide and Established Trade Practices (Section 123.1(d))

• Marks that have become customary or generic through widespread, common use in the industry are not registrable.
• Examples:
  • Terms like "light" for low-calorie products, or "eco-friendly" for environmentally safe products.
  • Symbols or shapes universally recognized in the trade industry without a distinct association to one brand.
• The rationale here is to prevent monopolization of common terms, ensuring they remain available for general use.

5. Marks Identical or Confusingly Similar to Prior Registered or Pending Marks (Section 123.1(e))

• Identical or Similar Marks: Marks that are identical or nearly identical to a previously registered or pending mark are non-registrable. This is to prevent consumer confusion and protect the rights of the original trademark owner.
• Test for Similarity: The IP Code mandates the application of the "dominancy test" and/or "holistic test" to determine whether two marks are confusingly similar:
  • Dominancy Test: Focuses on the dominant feature(s) of a mark and its effect on consumers.
  • Holistic Test: Considers the entirety of the mark, including appearance, sound, meaning, and overall impression.
• The similarity assessment considers factors such as the market channels, classes of goods or services, and target consumers.

6. Well-Known Marks or Those with Prior International Protection (Section 123.1(f))

• Well-Known Marks: If a mark is well-known internationally, even if it is unregistered in the Philippines, it may prevent the registration of a similar mark in the country. This provision reflects the Philippines’ obligations under the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property.
• International Comity: The IP Code respects well-known foreign trademarks to uphold the goodwill and reputation associated with global brands, especially those likely to cause confusion if imitated.

7. Marks That Are Deceptive, Misleading, or Likely to Cause Confusion (Section 123.1(g))

• Misleading or Deceptive Marks: Marks that misrepresent the nature, quality, or geographical origin of goods or services cannot be registered. Examples include:
  • Using the word “organic” for a product that is not truly organic.
  • Employing geographical names or symbols to imply a false origin (e.g., “Swiss Watch” for a watch made in another country).
• The goal is to protect consumers from deceit and preserve the integrity of commercial transactions.

8. Marks that Imitate State Symbols, Emblems, and International Organizations (Section 123.1(h))

• Prohibited Symbols: Marks that use the Philippine flag, national emblems, or insignia associated with governmental bodies, or internationally recognized organizations (e.g., United Nations symbols) are non-registrable.
• Protection of State Interests: This prohibition is grounded in public policy, aiming to prevent the misuse or commercial exploitation of national or international symbols.

9. Marks Consisting of Names, Portraits, or Signatures of Living Persons or Famous Individuals Without Consent (Section 123.1(i))

• Use of Personal Names: The names, portraits, or signatures of living individuals cannot be registered without their explicit consent. The same applies to well-known historical or deceased figures if such use would imply false endorsement or association.
• Right of Privacy and Publicity: This provision respects the personal rights of individuals and ensures their names or likenesses are not used commercially without permission.

10. Marks Similar to Those Already Known in Trade (Section 123.1(j))

• Marks that are identical or confusingly similar to unregistered but well-known trademarks in the Philippines cannot be registered.
• This recognizes and protects the commercial goodwill associated with unregistered marks that have gained sufficient recognition in the market, providing fair protection to businesses and preventing unfair competition.

11. Marks That Would Cause Damage to a Third Party (Section 123.1(k))

• If the registration of a mark could potentially harm a third party, especially by infringing upon their intellectual property rights, it will be non-registrable.
• Examples: Marks that infringe on copyright-protected designs, or that have a strong association with another party's brand image, logo, or business identity, cannot be registered.

12. Marks Similar to Trade Names Previously Used by a Third Party (Section 123.1(l))

• A trademark that closely resembles a previously established trade name is non-registrable, as it may create a likelihood of confusion about the source of the goods or services.
• The similarity test includes reviewing the sound, spelling, and general appearance of the trade name and the trademark.

Additional Notes on Non-Registrability

• Administrative Remedies: The IP Code provides recourse for parties affected by the registration of confusingly similar or infringing marks, allowing them to oppose such registrations.
• Exceptions: Certain marks that might otherwise be deemed descriptive or generic can be eligible for registration if they acquire secondary meaning or if used in ways that transform their perception in the marketplace.

Conclusion

Non-registrable marks in Philippine trademark law serve to prevent consumer deception, protect public order and morality, and maintain a fair, competitive marketplace. Each ground of non-registrability reflects an effort to balance the rights of trademark owners with public interest and international standards, ensuring that the use of trademarks fulfills both economic and social objectives.

Marks vs. Collective Marks vs. Trade Names | Trademarks | INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY

Marks vs. Collective Marks vs. Trade Names

Introduction to Intellectual Property in the Philippines

In the Philippines, intellectual property is protected under various laws, notably the Intellectual Property Code (Republic Act No. 8293). Within this framework, trademarks play a crucial role in protecting brands, ensuring fair competition, and safeguarding consumers from confusion. Understanding the distinctions between different types of trademarks, including ordinary marks, collective marks, and trade names, is essential for effective brand protection and compliance with the law.

I. Marks

Definition and Nature:

A mark is a sign capable of distinguishing the goods or services of one enterprise from those of others. Marks can include words, names, symbols, devices, or any combination thereof that is used in commerce to identify and distinguish goods or services.

Types of Marks:

1. Word Marks: Consist of letters, words, or numerals (e.g., "Coca-Cola").
2. Device Marks: Include logos or designs (e.g., the Nike swoosh).
3. Combined Marks: Include both words and design elements.
4. Sound Marks: Recognizable sounds that signify the source of goods (e.g., NBC chimes).
5. Color Marks: Specific colors used in packaging or branding.

Registration and Protection:

Under the Intellectual Property Code, marks can be registered with the Intellectual Property Office (IPO) of the Philippines. Registration provides several advantages:

• Legal presumption of ownership.
• Exclusive right to use the mark in connection with the registered goods or services.
• Ability to take legal action against infringement.

Duration of Protection:

Registered marks are protected for ten years from the date of registration and may be renewed indefinitely for subsequent ten-year periods, provided that the mark is still in use.

II. Collective Marks

Definition and Nature:

Collective marks are a type of trademark used by members of a collective group or association to identify goods or services as originating from that group. They indicate that the goods or services come from a particular group, which adheres to certain standards set by that group.

Characteristics:

• Used by multiple members of a collective group.
• Signifies a common origin or quality.
• Must be registered as a collective mark to provide legal protection.

Examples:

• Marks used by cooperatives or associations (e.g., a collective mark for organic farmers).

Registration and Protection:

To register a collective mark, the group must demonstrate that it is an association or organization with a defined membership. The application must include rules governing the use of the collective mark and details about its members.

Benefits:

• Enhances the reputation of the collective group.
• Provides a mechanism for controlling the quality of goods or services.

III. Trade Names

Definition and Nature:

A trade name is a name under which a business operates and is known to the public. Unlike trademarks, which are used to identify goods or services, trade names identify the business itself.

Characteristics:

• Can be a word, phrase, or combination of elements.
• Used to distinguish a business from others in the marketplace.
• May or may not be registered as a trademark.

Registration and Protection:

Trade names can be registered with the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) for corporations or partnerships and with the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) for sole proprietorships. While registration of a trade name does not provide the same level of protection as a registered trademark, it offers some degree of legal recognition and can prevent others from using similar names in the same business sector.

Duration of Protection:

The protection of trade names lasts as long as the business continues to operate under that name. However, it can be subject to cancellation if the business ceases operations or if the name is found to be misleading.

IV. Key Differences

Aspect	Marks	Collective Marks	Trade Names
Definition	Distinctive signs for goods/services	Marks used by a collective group	Name under which a business operates
Registration	Required for protection	Required for collective protection	Optional registration for recognition
Usage	By one entity	By multiple members of a group	By the business entity
Legal Protection	Stronger legal rights	Group-based legal protection	Weaker protection, primarily against confusion
Duration	10 years, renewable	10 years, renewable	As long as the business operates

Conclusion

Understanding the nuances between marks, collective marks, and trade names is vital for businesses operating in the Philippines. Each type serves a distinct purpose in the realm of intellectual property, providing various forms of protection and recognition. Businesses must carefully consider their branding strategies and legal protections to ensure their marks and trade names are properly registered and defended against potential infringement. By leveraging the rights afforded by these forms of intellectual property, businesses can secure their market position and enhance their reputation in a competitive landscape.

Trademarks | INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY

Trademarks in the Philippines: A Comprehensive Overview

1. Definition of Trademarks

A trademark is a recognizable sign, design, or expression that identifies products or services of a particular source from those of others. In the Philippines, trademarks can consist of words, names, symbols, devices, or any combination thereof that distinguishes the goods or services of one entity from another.

2. Legal Framework

The legal framework governing trademarks in the Philippines is primarily found in the Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines (Republic Act No. 8293), which was enacted on June 6, 1997. This law establishes the rules and regulations concerning trademarks, service marks, trade names, and commercial names.

3. Types of Trademarks

Trademarks can be categorized into several types:

• Product Trademarks: Marks used to identify goods.
• Service Marks: Marks used to identify services.
• Collective Marks: Marks used by members of a collective group or association.
• Certification Marks: Marks that certify the quality or origin of goods or services.

4. Registration Process

4.1. Application

To obtain trademark protection in the Philippines, an application must be filed with the Intellectual Property Office of the Philippines (IPOPHL). The application must include:

• The name and address of the applicant.
• A clear representation of the trademark.
• A list of the goods or services associated with the trademark.
• The applicable fees.

4.2. Examination

Once submitted, the application undergoes a substantive examination, during which the IPOPHL checks for compliance with the requirements of the law, including:

• Distinctiveness: The mark must be capable of distinguishing goods or services.
• Non-descriptiveness: Marks that describe the goods or services cannot be registered.
• Non-conflict with existing trademarks: The mark must not be identical or confusingly similar to registered marks.

4.3. Publication

If the application passes the examination, it will be published in the IPOPHL's Official Gazette for opposition. Third parties have 30 days from the date of publication to file an opposition against the application.

4.4. Registration

If no opposition is filed, or if the opposition is resolved in favor of the applicant, the trademark will be registered, and a Certificate of Registration will be issued.

5. Duration of Protection

Trademark registration in the Philippines is valid for 10 years from the date of registration. The registration can be renewed indefinitely for successive 10-year periods, provided that the mark is still in use.

6. Rights Conferred by Registration

Upon registration, the owner of the trademark is granted the exclusive right to use the mark in connection with the goods or services for which it is registered. This includes:

• The right to prevent others from using a similar mark that may cause confusion.
• The right to bring legal action against unauthorized users or infringers.
• The right to license the trademark to third parties.

7. Infringement and Enforcement

Trademark infringement occurs when a party uses a mark that is identical or confusingly similar to a registered trademark without the permission of the owner. The remedies available for trademark infringement include:

• Injunctions: To stop further use of the infringing mark.
• Damages: Compensation for losses incurred due to the infringement.
• Destruction of infringing goods: To eliminate products bearing the infringing mark.

8. Fair Use and Limitations

Certain uses of trademarks may not constitute infringement, including:

• Descriptive fair use: Using a trademark to describe the goods or services rather than as a brand identifier.
• Comparative advertising: Using a trademark to compare products in a manner that is not misleading.

9. International Treaties and Agreements

The Philippines is a member of several international agreements concerning trademarks, including:

• The Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property
• The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)
• The Madrid Protocol: Allows for international registration of trademarks.

10. Conclusion

Trademarks are a vital part of the business landscape in the Philippines, providing protection for brand identity and helping consumers identify the source of goods and services. Understanding the intricacies of trademark law, from registration to enforcement, is crucial for businesses seeking to protect their intellectual property. Businesses should consider seeking legal counsel to navigate the complexities of trademark law effectively.

11. Recommendations

• Conduct a Trademark Search: Before filing, conduct a thorough search to avoid potential conflicts with existing trademarks.
• Seek Legal Assistance: Consult with an intellectual property lawyer for guidance on the application process, potential disputes, and enforcement of rights.
• Maintain Trademark Use: Ensure that the trademark is actively used in commerce to maintain its validity and enforceability.

This comprehensive overview serves as a foundational guide to understanding trademarks within the Philippine legal framework.

Cancellation | Patents | INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY

Cancellation of Patents in the Philippines

Overview

In the Philippines, the cancellation of patents is governed by the Intellectual Property Code (Republic Act No. 8293), particularly under Title II, which deals with patents. The cancellation of a patent can occur for several reasons, typically relating to the validity of the patent itself. This process is essential to maintain the integrity of the patent system, ensuring that only valid patents confer exclusive rights to their holders.

Grounds for Cancellation

The primary grounds for cancellation of patents under Philippine law include:

1. Lack of Novelty: A patent may be cancelled if the invention is not novel, meaning it has been publicly disclosed before the filing date of the patent application. This can include prior art references that demonstrate the invention was already known.

2. Non-Patentability: If the invention does not meet the criteria for patentability, including lack of industrial applicability, non-obviousness, or if it falls under non-patentable subject matter (e.g., scientific principles, abstract ideas), it may be grounds for cancellation.

3. Failure to Comply with Formal Requirements: If the patent was granted without meeting the procedural requirements set by the Intellectual Property Office (IPO), such as proper filing, the inclusion of required documentation, or payment of fees, it can be annulled.

4. Fraud or Misrepresentation: If the patent applicant committed fraud or misrepresented material facts during the patent application process, this can lead to cancellation.

5. Public Interest: In some instances, patents can be cancelled on grounds of public policy or public interest, particularly if the patented invention is detrimental to public health or safety.

Cancellation Procedures

The procedure for cancelling a patent involves several steps:

1. Filing a Petition: An interested party, such as a competitor or anyone with a legitimate interest, may file a petition for cancellation. This petition must be filed with the Bureau of Legal Affairs (BLA) of the IPO.

2. Contents of the Petition: The petition should contain:

   • The name and address of the petitioner.
   • The name of the patent holder and the patent number.
   • A clear statement of the grounds for cancellation.
   • Evidence supporting the claims made in the petition.

3. Notification: Upon receipt of the petition, the IPO will notify the patent holder, who will then have the opportunity to respond to the allegations.

4. Hearing: A hearing may be scheduled where both parties can present their arguments and evidence. The IPO may also allow for the submission of additional documents.

5. Decision: After considering the evidence and arguments from both sides, the IPO will issue a decision. If the patent is cancelled, the decision will specify the grounds and the effective date of cancellation.

6. Appeal: If a party is dissatisfied with the decision, they can appeal to the Court of Appeals within a specified timeframe.

Effects of Cancellation

When a patent is cancelled, the following effects occur:

• The patent is rendered null and void from the date of cancellation.
• The rights granted to the patent holder cease to exist, allowing others to use the previously patented invention without infringement concerns.
• Any licenses granted under the cancelled patent may also be voided, depending on the terms of the license agreement.

Important Considerations

• Timeframe for Filing: There is typically no statute of limitations for filing a cancellation petition; however, it should be done promptly to ensure the integrity of the patent system.
• Burden of Proof: The burden of proof lies with the petitioner to establish the grounds for cancellation.
• Legal Representation: It is advisable for parties involved in a cancellation proceeding to seek legal representation, as the process can be complex and requires a thorough understanding of intellectual property laws.

Conclusion

The cancellation of patents in the Philippines is a vital aspect of maintaining a fair and effective intellectual property system. It ensures that only valid patents that truly meet the requirements of novelty, non-obviousness, and utility are upheld. Understanding the grounds for cancellation and the procedural steps involved is crucial for both patent holders and those seeking to challenge the validity of a patent.

Patent Infringement | Patents | INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY

Patent Infringement in Philippine Mercantile and Taxation Law

Introduction to Patent Infringement

Patent infringement in the Philippines is primarily governed by the Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines (Republic Act No. 8293), which outlines the rights of patent holders, the nature of patent infringement, and the remedies available. Patent infringement occurs when a third party, without permission or authorization from the patent holder, makes, uses, sells, offers for sale, or imports a patented invention within the Philippines. This infringement disrupts the patent holder’s exclusive rights to their invention, potentially leading to legal recourse.

Key Elements of Patent Infringement

1. Patent Holder's Exclusive Rights: The patent holder has the right to exclude others from:

   • Making the patented product,
   • Using the patented process,
   • Selling or offering for sale the patented invention,
   • Importing the patented product or any product made using the patented process.

2. Acts Constituting Infringement: Infringement can occur through direct or indirect means:

   • Direct Infringement: Occurs when an entity manufactures, uses, or sells the patented invention without permission.
   • Contributory Infringement: When a party knowingly provides components or materials used to infringe on the patent, especially if the components have no substantial non-infringing use.

3. Territorial Limitation: Patent rights are territorial, meaning the protection is enforceable within the Philippines. Importing infringing goods into the Philippines constitutes infringement, as it infringes on the patent holder's rights within the country.

4. Types of Infringing Products or Processes:

   • Literal Infringement: Direct and identical copying or usage of the patented claim.
   • Doctrine of Equivalents: Extends to cases where a product or process performs substantially the same function in substantially the same way to achieve substantially the same result as the patented invention.

Defenses Against Patent Infringement

Certain defenses are available for those accused of patent infringement:

1. Invalidity of Patent: An accused infringer may challenge the validity of the patent by arguing that it fails to meet patentability requirements (novelty, inventive step, industrial applicability).
2. Experimental Use Exception: Allows the use of patented inventions for experimental purposes related to scientific research without infringing on the patent.
3. Prior Use: If a party can prove they were using or exploiting the invention prior to the filing date, they may avoid infringement claims.
4. Non-Infringing Use: If the use falls outside the patented claims or does not utilize the patented process, it may not constitute infringement.

Remedies for Patent Infringement

1. Injunctive Relief: The court may issue an injunction to prevent the infringing party from continuing their infringing activities. This can include temporary restraining orders or permanent injunctions.
2. Damages: Patent holders may be entitled to monetary damages, which can include:
   • Actual Damages: Based on losses suffered by the patent holder due to infringement.
   • Reasonable Royalty: When actual damages are difficult to quantify, the court may award a reasonable royalty.
   • Punitive Damages: In cases of willful infringement, the court may award damages to deter future infringing behavior.
3. Seizure and Destruction of Infringing Goods: Courts can order the seizure and destruction of infringing products and materials used in the production of infringing goods.
4. Attorney's Fees and Costs: The infringer may be required to cover the patent holder’s legal fees, particularly if the infringement is proven to be willful.

Jurisdiction and Enforcement in the Philippines

1. Intellectual Property Office (IPO): The Intellectual Property Office of the Philippines (IPO) provides administrative recourse for patent holders, including mediation services and issuance of cease-and-desist orders.
2. Regional Trial Courts (RTC): In cases of patent infringement, the RTC holds jurisdiction, and decisions can be appealed to higher courts.
3. Border Enforcement: The IPO collaborates with the Bureau of Customs to prevent the importation of infringing products into the country.

Procedural Requirements for Patent Infringement Cases

To initiate a patent infringement case, the complainant must:

1. Prove Ownership: Present a valid and enforceable patent registered with the IPO.
2. Provide Evidence of Infringement: Detailed proof of the alleged infringing acts, including comparative analysis of the infringing product/process against the patent claims.
3. Notification: In some cases, particularly with contributory infringement, it may be necessary to notify the infringer of the patent and demand they cease their infringing activities.

Penalties and Fines

The penalties for patent infringement can include civil liabilities (damages and injunctions) as well as criminal penalties, especially in cases of willful or repeated infringement. Criminal sanctions may include imprisonment and fines based on the value of the infringement, although civil remedies are generally pursued.

Key Precedents and Interpretations

The Philippines aligns its patent laws with international treaties like the TRIPS Agreement (Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights), affecting how local courts interpret patent infringement cases. Recent jurisprudence in Philippine courts has highlighted several key aspects:

1. Interpretation of Claims: Courts prioritize the "claims" section of a patent when determining infringement, applying either literal interpretation or the doctrine of equivalents based on context.
2. Good Faith Defense: Some decisions have considered the infringer's good faith, though it does not necessarily absolve liability; it may impact the severity of damages.
3. Exhaustion Doctrine: Once a patented product is sold, the patent holder’s rights to control its subsequent resale or use are "exhausted."

Conclusion

In the Philippines, patent infringement law seeks to balance the rights of patent holders with the need for public access to technological advancements. Patent holders are provided comprehensive protection against unauthorized use, manufacturing, or selling of patented inventions, with avenues to enforce their rights administratively and judicially. However, defenses like experimental use and non-infringing uses limit these rights, ensuring innovation and access to technology are not unduly hindered. The remedies for patent infringement, including injunctive relief, damages, and destruction of infringing goods, are designed to provide robust protection while deterring infringement.

Rights and Limitations of Patent Owner | Patents | INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY

Mercantile and Taxation Laws > Intellectual Property > Patents > Rights and Limitations of Patent Owners

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I. Introduction to Patent Ownership Rights in the Philippines

In the Philippines, patent rights are governed by the Intellectual Property Code (IPC), codified in Republic Act No. 8293. The Philippine Intellectual Property Office (IPO) grants patents to inventors for novel, inventive, and industrially applicable inventions. A patent owner is granted exclusive rights over the patented invention, enabling them to prevent others from using, manufacturing, or selling the patented invention without permission. However, these rights come with certain limitations and are balanced by public interest considerations.

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II. Rights of the Patent Owner

1. Exclusive Rights to Use and Exploit (Sec. 71, IPC)

   • The patent owner holds the exclusive right to:
     • Prevent unauthorized persons from producing, using, offering for sale, selling, or importing the patented product.
     • For process patents, they can prevent unauthorized use of the process, as well as the importation, sale, or distribution of products obtained directly by the patented process.
   • This exclusive right enables the patent owner to commercialize the invention and maintain a competitive advantage.

2. Right to License and Transfer (Sec. 103-105, IPC)

   • The patent owner has the right to grant licenses to third parties, permitting them to use the patent in exchange for royalties or other payments.
   • The patent owner may assign or transfer ownership of the patent to another entity, effectively transferring exclusive rights over the invention.
   • Licensing can be voluntary, but it can also be subject to government-imposed compulsory licenses under certain circumstances (discussed under Limitations).

3. Right to Remedies for Infringement (Sec. 76-77, IPC)

   • Patent owners may seek legal remedies for infringement, including injunctions, damages, or accounts of profits.
   • The patent owner may also request the seizure or destruction of infringing goods, providing additional protection against unauthorized use.

4. Right to Importation

   • Patent rights also cover imported products that embody the patented invention, enabling the patent owner to control not just local manufacturing and sales but also the entry of infringing imports into the country.

5. Right to Secrecy and Protection of Information

   • During the application process, the applicant can request confidentiality regarding sensitive information related to the patent. This helps maintain the confidentiality of technical details until the patent is published.

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III. Limitations on the Rights of the Patent Owner

1. Doctrine of Exhaustion

   • Once a patented product is sold by or with the consent of the patent owner, the owner’s control over that specific product is “exhausted.” Subsequent resale or use of the product is not subject to the patent owner’s exclusive rights, limiting the owner's power over previously sold products.

2. Compulsory Licensing (Sec. 93-100, IPC)

   • The Philippine government may issue a compulsory license if:
     • The invention is not available to the public at a reasonable cost.
     • The invention is needed for public health, national security, or other critical issues.
     • Anti-competitive practices are suspected.
   • This measure ensures public access to essential technologies, especially in cases like pharmaceuticals or public utilities.

3. Parallel Importation

   • Under specific conditions, a patented product legally sold in another jurisdiction may be imported into the Philippines without the patent owner’s consent. This concept aligns with the doctrine of international exhaustion, promoting access to affordable products and preventing monopolistic pricing.

4. Government Use (Sec. 74, IPC)

   • The Philippine government has the right to use patented inventions without the patent owner’s consent for non-commercial, governmental purposes. This is especially applicable during emergencies or in the interest of public welfare.
   • Compensation must be paid to the patent owner, but the government’s use bypasses typical patent rights for a limited scope and duration.

5. Research and Experimental Use Exception (Sec. 72.4, IPC)

   • This exception permits the use of a patented invention for research and experimental purposes without infringing on the patent.
   • Non-commercial use by researchers, educators, or scientists is permissible, provided it is intended for knowledge advancement and not for direct profit.

6. Bolar Provision (Sec. 72.3, IPC)

   • The Bolar Provision permits third parties to use a patented invention, without infringement, for regulatory approval purposes. This is particularly relevant in the pharmaceutical industry, where companies may develop generic versions of a drug during the patent term to be ready for market release immediately after patent expiration.

7. Use of the Invention in Foreign Vessels or Aircrafts Temporarily in the Philippines (Sec. 72.1, IPC)

   • Foreign vessels, aircraft, or vehicles entering Philippine jurisdiction temporarily may use patented inventions without permission if these inventions are utilized as part of their operations, provided such use is non-commercial and incidental.

8. Regulatory Approval Exception (Sec. 72.5, IPC)

   • Inventions requiring regulatory approval, like pharmaceuticals or biotechnologies, may be used for the purpose of securing government clearance without constituting patent infringement.

9. Limitations Under Competition Law

   • Philippine law restricts the use of patents to prevent anti-competitive practices. Abusive licensing, monopolistic practices, or price manipulation by the patent owner may subject them to legal action or mandatory licensing provisions.
   • Competition law ensures that patent rights do not unduly stifle market competition or harm consumer welfare.

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IV. Duration and Expiration of Patent Rights

1. Patent Term (Sec. 54, IPC)

   • The standard duration of a patent in the Philippines is 20 years from the filing date. Upon expiration, the invention enters the public domain, and anyone can use, manufacture, or sell it without infringing on former patent rights.

2. Renewal and Maintenance Fees (Sec. 55, IPC)

   • Patent owners are required to pay periodic maintenance fees to retain the enforceability of their patent. Failure to pay these fees may result in the lapse of the patent, placing the invention in the public domain before the 20-year term.

3. Revocation and Nullification of Patents (Sec. 61-66, IPC)

   • A patent may be challenged on grounds of invalidity, such as lack of novelty, inventiveness, or industrial applicability. Courts or the IPO may revoke patents that do not meet statutory requirements, nullifying the patent owner’s rights.

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V. Conclusion

Patent rights in the Philippines provide inventors with significant control and exclusivity over their inventions, promoting innovation and economic growth. However, these rights are not absolute. Limitations such as compulsory licensing, government use, parallel importation, and other statutory exceptions ensure a balance between protecting inventors and safeguarding public welfare. The Philippine IP framework thus aims to encourage innovation while providing mechanisms to prevent patent abuse and ensure public access to essential technologies.

Ownership of a Patent | Patents | INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY

Ownership of a Patent in the Philippines: A Comprehensive Guide

1. Introduction to Patent Ownership in Philippine Law Patent ownership in the Philippines is governed primarily by Republic Act No. 8293, also known as the Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines (IPC). The IPC establishes rights, responsibilities, and regulations regarding patents, including who may own a patent and the nature of patent ownership.

2. Definition of a Patent and Ownership Rights A patent is an exclusive right granted for an invention, providing the patent owner with the right to exclude others from making, using, selling, or importing the invention without consent. Patent ownership, therefore, entitles the owner to control how the invention is used, while also providing legal recourse to enforce these rights.

3. Who Can Own a Patent?

• The Inventor(s): By default, the inventor or inventors of a patentable invention are the initial owners of the patent, provided they apply for the patent themselves.
• Legal Successors or Assignees: Ownership may also extend to legal successors or assignees if the inventor(s) transfer ownership through an assignment. Such assignment must be documented in writing and recorded with the Intellectual Property Office of the Philippines (IPOPHL) to be enforceable.
• Employers: In certain cases, employers may claim ownership if the invention was made as part of the inventor’s employment. The extent of employer rights to ownership depends on whether the invention was created within the scope of employment and the specific terms of the employment contract.

4. Rules on Patent Ownership for Employed Inventors

• Contractual Provisions: Employment contracts play a crucial role in determining patent ownership. If a contract explicitly assigns invention rights to the employer, ownership typically vests in the employer.
• Presumption of Ownership: Under the IPC, an employer generally has rights over an invention if:
  • The invention was made as part of the employee's duties.
  • The invention pertains to the employer’s line of business.
  • The resources or materials of the employer were used in the invention process.
• Inventor's Right to Royalties: Even if the employer owns the patent, the inventor-employee may have a right to receive royalties or other compensation if stipulated in the employment contract.

5. Joint Ownership of a Patent

• Rights of Co-Owners: If multiple individuals jointly own a patent, each co-owner has equal rights to use the invention and receive income from its exploitation unless otherwise agreed upon.
• Transfer of Ownership in Joint Patents: Each co-owner may transfer or assign their share in the patent, but it generally requires notification to other co-owners, and consent may be needed depending on any co-ownership agreement in place.

6. Transfer and Assignment of Patent Ownership

• Written Agreement Requirement: An assignment or transfer of patent rights must be in writing and must identify the parties, the patent, and any agreed-upon terms for the transfer.
• Recording with IPOPHL: Assignments, transfers, or any changes in patent ownership must be recorded with IPOPHL to establish legal standing. Failure to record may result in unenforceability against third parties who acquire interests in the patent.
• Conditions and Limitations: Ownership transfers can be subject to conditions, limitations, or restrictions, which may include royalty arrangements, limited rights, or retention of certain rights by the original owner.

7. License Agreements vs. Ownership Transfer A license does not transfer ownership but grants a licensee the right to use the patent within specified limitations. Ownership remains with the patent holder, but the licensee may exercise certain rights under the scope of the license agreement. Licenses may be exclusive or non-exclusive:

• Exclusive License: Only the licensee has the right to use the patent, barring even the patent owner from making, selling, or otherwise using the invention within the license’s scope.
• Non-Exclusive License: The licensee gains permission to use the patent, but the patent holder retains the right to use the invention and may grant additional licenses to others.

8. Infringement and Enforcement Rights of Patent Owners

• Right to Sue: A patent owner can bring an action for patent infringement in the courts to enforce their exclusive rights. Such actions can seek damages, injunctions, or other reliefs.
• Preliminary Injunctions: Patent owners can file for preliminary injunctions to prevent potential infringers from exploiting the patent while the case is pending.
• Relief Options: The patent owner can seek relief, including actual damages, lost profits, and in certain cases, statutory damages. If infringement is willful, the court may impose additional penalties.

9. Ownership Term and Renewal

• Ownership Duration: A patent’s exclusive rights generally last 20 years from the filing date, provided the patent owner pays the necessary maintenance fees.
• Maintenance Fees: Failure to pay these fees may lead to the patent lapsing, thereby placing the invention in the public domain unless the lapse is corrected within prescribed periods.

10. Succession and Heirship

• Inheritance of Patent Rights: Patent rights are considered personal property, and upon the death of a patent owner, these rights can be inherited according to the Philippine Civil Code, provided that a will or intestate succession is followed.
• Transfer upon Death: The patent right may be assigned through testamentary or intestate succession, allowing heirs or designated successors to assume ownership.

11. Ownership in Cases of Government Contracts or Public Interest

• Government Ownership: If the invention was created under a government contract or is of significant public interest, the government may claim ownership or license the patent for broader use.
• Compulsory Licensing: In certain circumstances, such as public health crises, the government may issue compulsory licenses, which permit others to use the patented invention without the patent owner's consent. Compensation to the patent owner is generally mandated in these cases.

12. IP Policy Updates and Compliance with International Agreements The Philippines, as a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and party to the Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement, has aligned its patent laws with international standards. This alignment reinforces protection for patent owners and supports fair international trade practices.

Conclusion Ownership of a patent in the Philippines is a robust, multifaceted right governed by the Intellectual Property Code. The law outlines clear guidelines for inventors, employers, and third parties regarding ownership, transfer, licensing, and enforcement. Understanding these aspects is essential for inventors, businesses, and entities involved in innovation and intellectual property management in the Philippines.

Patentable vs. Non-patentable Inventions | Patents | INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY

Patentable vs. Non-Patentable Inventions in Philippine Intellectual Property Law

In the Philippines, patent laws are governed by Republic Act No. 8293, known as the Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines (IP Code). The IP Code outlines the criteria for patentability, specifies what types of inventions are patentable, and lists exclusions from patent protection. It is crucial for legal practitioners to understand these distinctions to provide accurate legal advice, file patent applications properly, and defend intellectual property rights effectively.

1. Patentability Criteria under the IP Code

According to Section 21 of the IP Code, an invention must satisfy the following requirements to be patentable:

• Novelty: The invention must be new, meaning it has not been disclosed to the public anywhere in the world prior to the filing date or priority date.
• Inventive Step: The invention must not be obvious to a person skilled in the relevant field of technology, based on prior art.
• Industrial Applicability: The invention must be capable of being used in any industry.

If an invention meets these criteria, it can be considered patentable unless it falls within the list of non-patentable inventions.

2. Patentable Subject Matter

A patentable invention is defined in Section 21 of the IP Code as a “technical solution of a problem in any field of human activity which is new, involves an inventive step, and is industrially applicable.” Patentable subject matter includes:

• Products: Machines, devices, compositions of matter, and manufactured items that are new and useful.
• Processes: Methods or procedures that lead to a practical application of a concept or a new technical result.
• Improvements of Existing Products or Processes: Innovations or advancements to existing patented items or methods that add substantial novelty, inventive steps, and industrial utility.

3. Non-Patentable Inventions (Section 22)

Despite meeting the criteria of novelty, inventive step, and industrial applicability, certain inventions are explicitly excluded from patent protection under Section 22 of the IP Code. Non-patentable inventions include:

• Discoveries, Scientific Theories, and Mathematical Methods: Scientific principles, abstract theories, and mathematical methods do not constitute technical solutions and are therefore non-patentable.

• Schemes, Rules, and Methods for Performing Mental Acts, Playing Games, or Doing Business, and Programs for Computers: These types of concepts do not provide a technical solution and are thus not patentable. However, computer-implemented inventions that present a new technical effect or process may be patentable, depending on the details of the invention.

• Methods for Treatment of the Human or Animal Body: This includes diagnostic, therapeutic, and surgical methods, as these are not considered industrially applicable. However, medical devices or products used in these methods may still be patentable.

• Plant Varieties and Animal Breeds or Essentially Biological Processes for the Production of Plants and Animals: This exclusion reflects the distinction between inventions and discoveries in biological sciences. Although plant varieties and animal breeds are non-patentable, inventions related to genetically modified organisms or biological techniques may qualify for patent protection.

• Aesthetic Creations: These include works of art, designs, and other forms of creative expressions that serve an ornamental purpose. They are protected under copyright or design laws but do not meet the requirements of patent law.

4. Special Cases and Judicial Interpretations

Over the years, certain cases have helped clarify the distinction between patentable and non-patentable inventions in the Philippines:

• Computer Programs and Software-Related Inventions: While programs “as such” are non-patentable, if a computer program is tied to a technical process or results in a technical effect (such as improving computer performance or data processing), it may be patentable. Philippine jurisprudence on this remains limited, but global trends influence local interpretations.

• Biotechnology and Genetic Inventions: With advances in biotechnology, there has been significant interest in patenting genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and methods in genetic engineering. While plants, animals, and biological processes are non-patentable, inventions derived from biotechnology that yield a new technical result or industrial application may be considered patentable under Philippine law.

5. Implications and Practical Application of Patentability Rules

Legal practitioners must ensure that inventions fulfill both the formal requirements of patentability and do not fall within the non-patentable categories. Here are essential points to consider:

• Patent Drafting and Claiming: Patent claims should be carefully drafted to focus on the technical aspects of the invention. If an invention relates to software or a medical method, claims should emphasize the technical solution or apparatus used, rather than the non-patentable process.

• Clear Distinction of Product vs. Process Claims: For inventions involving non-patentable subject matter, separating product claims (patentable) from method claims (non-patentable) can improve the likelihood of obtaining a patent. For example, a drug used for treatment may be patentable, even though the method of treatment itself is not.

• Research and Development Documentation: Maintaining robust documentation during the R&D phase is crucial for establishing the novelty and inventive step, especially in cases involving complex technologies such as AI and biotechnology, where boundaries between patentable and non-patentable inventions can blur.

6. Conclusion and Practical Advice

In conclusion, Philippine patent law provides clear criteria for patentable inventions but also includes significant exclusions for inventions that do not provide a technical solution, lack industrial applicability, or involve areas of scientific discovery or biological processes. For practitioners, understanding the boundaries between patentable and non-patentable inventions is essential. Emphasis should be placed on:

• Ensuring the invention meets all criteria for patentability.
• Drafting claims that focus on the technical aspects of the invention.
• Staying informed on global trends and jurisprudence that may affect local interpretations, especially in technology-driven fields.

By following these guidelines, inventors and legal professionals can navigate the complexities of patent law in the Philippines effectively.

Patents | INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY

Mercantile and Taxation Laws: Intellectual Property - Patents in the Philippines

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The field of intellectual property law in the Philippines is governed by the Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines (Republic Act No. 8293, as amended). The law covers various aspects of intellectual property, including patents, trademarks, copyrights, trade secrets, and other related rights. In the context of patents, the following comprehensive outline presents the key aspects of patent law in the Philippines:

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1. Definition and Purpose of Patents

• Patent: A patent is an exclusive right granted for an invention, a product, or a process providing a new and inventive solution to a problem.
• Purpose: Patents incentivize inventors by granting them temporary monopoly rights, fostering innovation and technological progress in exchange for the public disclosure of the invention.

2. Patentable Inventions

• Under Section 21 of RA 8293, a patentable invention must satisfy three criteria:
  1. Novelty: The invention must be new and not part of prior art.
  2. Inventive Step: The invention must not be obvious to a person skilled in the art.
  3. Industrial Applicability: The invention must be capable of being used in any industry.
• Non-Patentable Inventions (Section 22):
  • Discoveries, scientific theories, and mathematical methods
  • Schemes, rules, and methods for performing mental acts or playing games
  • Methods for treatment of the human or animal body
  • Plants and animals (except for microorganisms and non-biological processes)
  • Aesthetic creations
  • Inventions contrary to public order, morality, health, or welfare

3. Filing a Patent Application

• Requirements for Application (Sections 32–34):

  • Who Can Apply: Any inventor or their assignee can file a patent application.
  • Where to Apply: Application is submitted to the Intellectual Property Office of the Philippines (IPOPHL).
  • Content of Application: The application must contain a request for grant, a description, claims, an abstract, and drawings (if necessary).
  • Formal Examination: IPOPHL conducts a formal examination to check compliance with formal requirements.

• Examination Process:

  • Substantive Examination (Section 48): Ensures the invention meets patentability requirements.
  • Publication and Opposition (Sections 44–47): Upon acceptance, the application is published, allowing third-party opposition within 6 months.

4. Grant and Term of Patent

• Grant of Patent: Once the examination is complete and requirements met, IPOPHL issues a patent, conferring exclusive rights to the inventor.
• Duration: Patents are valid for 20 years from the filing date, subject to the payment of annual fees.
• Extension: Patent term extension is generally not allowed, except under special conditions, such as compensating for delays in granting the patent.

5. Rights Conferred by Patents

• The patentee has the exclusive right to prevent third parties from:
  • Making, using, offering for sale, or importing the patented product.
  • Using the patented process and dealing with products obtained directly from the process.
• Exhaustion of Rights: Once the product is sold by or with the consent of the patentee, they cannot control further sale or distribution of that product.
• Compulsory Licensing (Sections 93–102): In certain cases, such as national emergency or public interest, the government can grant compulsory licenses to third parties to use the patent without the owner’s consent.

6. Patent Infringement and Remedies

• Infringement:
  • Unauthorized use, production, sale, or importation of a patented invention constitutes infringement.
• Remedies for Infringement:
  • Civil Remedies: The patentee can file a civil suit for damages and injunctive relief. Actual and moral damages can be awarded, including attorney's fees and costs.
  • Criminal Remedies: Under certain conditions, patent infringement can also be subject to criminal penalties.
• Burden of Proof: The patentee generally has the burden to prove infringement, but certain defenses are allowed, including:
  • Prior use by another party before the patent application.
  • Experimental use for scientific research without commercial purposes.

7. Taxation on Patents

• Income Tax: Income derived from patents, such as royalties or license fees, is generally subject to income tax. The income tax rate will depend on whether the patentee is an individual or corporation.
• Value-Added Tax (VAT): Licensing and royalty payments are subject to VAT if they qualify as a sale of services.
• Donor’s and Estate Tax: Patents form part of a patent holder’s estate upon death and are subject to estate tax. Transfers of patents via donation are also subject to donor’s tax.

8. Patent Licensing and Assignment

• Licensing:
  • Patentees can grant licenses for others to use their invention while retaining ownership.
  • Licenses can be exclusive (one licensee) or non-exclusive (multiple licensees).
  • Licensing agreements must be registered with IPOPHL to be enforceable.
• Assignment:
  • Patents are assignable property rights, and assignment (transfer of ownership) must be registered with IPOPHL to be enforceable against third parties.

9. Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT)

• The Philippines is a member of the PCT, allowing Filipino inventors to file international patent applications with a streamlined process.
• Process:
  • A PCT application filed in the Philippines acts as a placeholder for national filings in other PCT member states, preserving the filing date.
  • This enables Filipino inventors to secure patents internationally with reduced procedural steps.

10. IPOPHL Services and Assistance

• Assistance Programs:
  • IPOPHL offers patent drafting assistance and access to patent information databases to help inventors and businesses.
• Patent Prosecution Highway (PPH):
  • Through PPH agreements, IPOPHL expedites examination of patents that have already been approved in certain foreign jurisdictions.

11. Notable Jurisprudence in Philippine Patent Law

• The Supreme Court has issued landmark decisions clarifying various aspects of patent law:
  • Patentability Standards: Courts have defined standards for novelty and inventive step.
  • Patent Infringement: Landmark cases address the interpretation of infringement and defenses.
  • Compulsory Licensing: Courts have clarified the grounds for and limitations of compulsory licensing.

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Conclusion

Patent law in the Philippines provides a robust framework for protecting and commercializing inventions, balancing inventors' rights with public interest. By enforcing patent rights and fostering innovation, the Philippines aligns with international IP standards, including the TRIPS Agreement and the PCT.

Republic Act No. 8293, as amended | INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY

Republic Act No. 8293, known as the Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines (IP Code), is the primary legislation governing intellectual property rights in the Philippines. Enacted in 1997 and amended in subsequent years, this law consolidates and codifies various intellectual property rights, offering a comprehensive framework for their protection. This guide outlines the essential details of Republic Act No. 8293, as amended, with an emphasis on its provisions, objectives, and significant areas.

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I. OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE OF REPUBLIC ACT NO. 8293

The IP Code aims to:

1. Promote an Intellectual Property Regime: Encourage technological innovation and creative expression by protecting intellectual property rights (IPR) and rewarding creators and inventors.
2. Align with International Standards: Adapt Philippine intellectual property laws to align with global standards, particularly agreements under the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO).
3. Enhance Economic Growth: By fostering creativity and innovation, the law aims to spur economic growth and competitiveness.

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II. THE INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY OFFICE OF THE PHILIPPINES (IPOPHL)

The Intellectual Property Office of the Philippines (IPOPHL) is the regulatory body established under the IP Code. It is responsible for administering and implementing the law, as well as promoting intellectual property rights. IPOPHL is divided into several bureaus, each dedicated to different types of intellectual property:

1. Bureau of Patents (BOP): Handles applications and registration of patents.
2. Bureau of Trademarks (BOT): Administers trademarks and service marks.
3. Bureau of Copyright and Related Rights (BCRR): Oversees copyrights and related rights.
4. Bureau of Legal Affairs (BLA): Adjudicates disputes related to IP rights.
5. Documentation, Information, and Technology Transfer Bureau (DITTB): Provides resources and services related to IP education and information.

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III. KEY PROVISIONS OF THE INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY CODE

Republic Act No. 8293 covers various forms of intellectual property rights, including Patents, Trademarks, Copyrights, Trade Secrets, Industrial Designs, and Utility Models. Below is a breakdown of each IP right and its specific provisions.

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A. PATENTS

Patents provide the inventor with exclusive rights to make, use, sell, or import the invention in the Philippines for a limited period, subject to certain requirements and limitations:

1. Patentability: To be patentable, an invention must be:

   • New (Novelty): The invention must not be part of the state of the art or prior art.
   • Inventive Step: It must not be obvious to a person skilled in the relevant field.
   • Industrial Applicability: The invention must be capable of being used in an industry.

2. Term: A patent is granted for 20 years from the filing date, with no possibility of renewal.

3. Non-Patentable Inventions: The IP Code explicitly excludes certain inventions, including scientific theories, mathematical methods, and discoveries of natural substances, among others.

4. Rights of the Patent Owner: The owner has the exclusive right to exploit the invention, prevent unauthorized third-party use, and license or transfer the patent.

5. Compulsory Licensing: The government may grant a compulsory license to use the invention without the patent owner's consent under specific conditions, such as public health crises or failure to commercially exploit the patent.

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B. TRADEMARKS AND SERVICE MARKS

Trademarks and service marks are distinctive signs that identify goods or services. Republic Act No. 8293 provides for the registration, protection, and enforcement of trademark rights:

1. Registrability: A mark can be registered if it is distinctive and not confusingly similar to existing registered marks.

2. Scope of Rights: The registered trademark owner has the exclusive right to use the mark and prevent others from using confusingly similar marks.

3. Term and Renewal: The initial registration period for a trademark is 10 years, renewable indefinitely for successive 10-year periods.

4. Well-Known Marks: Special protection is given to well-known marks, even if they are not registered in the Philippines.

5. Infringement and Remedies: Infringement occurs when a third party uses a mark similar to the registered trademark, causing confusion. Remedies include damages, injunctions, and criminal liability in certain cases.

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C. COPYRIGHT AND RELATED RIGHTS

Copyright is a form of protection for original works of authorship, including literary, artistic, and scientific works:

1. Protected Works: Copyright protection applies to books, musical compositions, visual artworks, and computer programs, among others.

2. Automatic Protection: Copyright protection is granted automatically upon creation and does not require registration.

3. Term of Protection: Generally, the term is the lifetime of the author plus 50 years after their death. For corporate works, anonymous works, and certain others, the term varies.

4. Moral and Economic Rights: Authors have moral rights to claim authorship, prevent unauthorized modifications, and maintain the integrity of their work. Economic rights allow authors to profit from their works.

5. Related Rights: Performers, producers of sound recordings, and broadcasting organizations have related rights, often lasting 50 years from the date of production.

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D. INDUSTRIAL DESIGNS

Industrial Designs protect the aesthetic aspects of an object, not its functional elements:

1. Requirements for Protection: The design must be new or original and must be applied to an industrial product.

2. Term: An industrial design is protected for five years from the filing date, renewable for up to 15 years.

3. Rights of the Owner: The registered owner has the right to prevent unauthorized copying or imitation of the design.

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E. UTILITY MODELS

Utility Models provide protection similar to patents but for innovations with a lower inventive threshold:

1. Requirements: To be protected, a utility model must be new and industrially applicable but does not require an inventive step as patents do.

2. Term: The utility model is protected for seven years, with no possibility of renewal.

3. Rights: Similar to patents, the owner of a utility model has the exclusive right to prevent others from using the model without authorization.

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F. TRADE SECRETS

Trade Secrets are not registered but are protected as confidential information. To qualify as a trade secret, the information must:

1. Be Confidential: Known only to a limited group of people within the organization.
2. Have Commercial Value: Provide a competitive advantage.
3. Be Protected by the Holder: Reasonable steps must be taken to maintain its confidentiality.

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IV. ENFORCEMENT MECHANISMS

The IP Code provides several mechanisms for enforcing IP rights in the Philippines:

1. Administrative Enforcement: IPOPHL’s Bureau of Legal Affairs can mediate disputes, handle complaints, and issue resolutions.
2. Judicial Enforcement: IP rights holders may file civil or criminal cases in Philippine courts for IP infringement.
3. Border Control Measures: Customs authorities can seize counterfeit goods at the border upon request from IP owners.

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V. AMENDMENTS TO REPUBLIC ACT NO. 8293

Several amendments have been made to RA 8293 to modernize the IP system and ensure better protection of intellectual property rights. Key amendments include:

1. RA No. 10372: This amendment strengthened enforcement mechanisms and provided additional powers to IPOPHL.
2. Amendments on Copyright Law: Expanded the coverage of copyright and strengthened provisions on online copyright infringement.

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VI. INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS AND IP CODE COMPLIANCE

The Philippines is a signatory to multiple international treaties, including the Paris Convention, Berne Convention, TRIPS Agreement, and WIPO Treaties. The IP Code is designed to ensure compliance with these treaties and facilitate cooperation with international IP organizations.

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VII. CONCLUSION

Republic Act No. 8293, as amended, is a critical legal instrument for fostering innovation, protecting creators, and aligning Philippine intellectual property law with global standards.

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY

MERCANTILE AND TAXATION LAWS > V. INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY

Intellectual Property (IP) law in the Philippines is regulated primarily through the Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines (Republic Act No. 8293, as amended), which consolidates laws governing patents, trademarks, copyright, trade secrets, and other IP protections. The IP Code aligns Philippine IP laws with international standards, following agreements like the WTO’s TRIPS Agreement, to which the Philippines is a signatory. Here’s a comprehensive breakdown of the major facets of IP law under mercantile and taxation laws in the Philippines:

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I. Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines

The Intellectual Property Code, enacted in 1997, codifies the various forms of IP rights in the Philippines, categorizing and setting out protections for patents, utility models, industrial designs, trademarks, service marks, copyright, and geographic indicators. The law is enforced by the Intellectual Property Office of the Philippines (IPOPHL), which oversees registration and enforcement.

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II. Major Types of Intellectual Property Rights in the Philippines

1. Patents

   • Definition: A patent provides the holder exclusive rights to exclude others from making, using, selling, or importing an invention for a limited period, typically 20 years from filing.
   • Requirements for Patentability: The invention must be novel, involve an inventive step, and be industrially applicable.
   • Procedure: Applications are submitted to IPOPHL, where they are examined and, if meeting requirements, approved for patent grants.
   • Exceptions: Non-patentable inventions include discoveries, scientific theories, mathematical methods, and other specifically excluded items under the IP Code.
   • Tax Implications: Income derived from patents may be subject to income tax, but the Bureau of Internal Revenue (BIR) may allow deductions for certain IP-related expenses.

2. Utility Models and Industrial Designs

   • Utility Models: Provides protection for new and industrially applicable models or improvements that don’t meet the full patent requirements, protected for a shorter term (typically 7 years).
   • Industrial Designs: Protects aesthetic, non-functional elements of industrial products, lasting for 5 years and renewable for up to 15 years.
   • Taxation: Similar to patents, revenue from licensing of utility models or designs is taxed as income, and specific IP expenses may be deductible.

3. Trademarks and Service Marks

   • Trademarks: A trademark is a word, name, symbol, or device identifying and distinguishing goods. It must be distinctive and non-generic.
   • Registration and Renewal: Trademarks require registration with IPOPHL to obtain exclusive rights, lasting for 10 years and renewable indefinitely.
   • Filing Basis: Philippine law allows for use-based and intent-to-use filings, which must show bona fide intent to use the trademark.
   • Protection Against Infringement: Registered trademarks provide the holder with legal remedies against infringement, including damages and injunctive relief.
   • Taxation on Trademarks: Licensing income is generally taxable. The transfer or assignment of trademarks may also trigger capital gains tax. Moreover, withholding tax applies to royalties paid to foreign licensors.

4. Copyright

   • Protection Coverage: Copyright protects original works of authorship, including literary, artistic, and musical works. It doesn’t cover ideas but protects the expression of ideas.
   • Duration of Copyright: Generally lasts during the life of the author plus 50 years after death. For joint authorship, 50 years from the death of the last surviving author.
   • Registration: While copyright protection is automatic upon creation, voluntary registration with the National Library or IPOPHL provides additional evidentiary support.
   • Infringement and Remedies: Copyright holders can pursue damages and other relief against unauthorized use, with criminal penalties for willful infringement.
   • Tax Implications: Revenue from copyrighted work licensing is subject to income tax. Authors and artists may also deduct expenses related to copyright production and maintenance.

5. Trade Secrets

   • Protection: Trade secrets are protected under civil law rather than the IP Code. They must be confidential and provide economic value due to their secrecy.
   • Misappropriation: Philippine laws, through civil remedies, provide recourse for trade secret theft, typically under contractual non-disclosure or non-compete agreements.
   • Taxation: Licensing or sale of trade secrets is subject to income tax, with possible deductions for maintaining confidentiality measures.

6. Geographical Indications (GI)

   • Definition: GIs protect names or signs used on products from a specific location that have qualities unique to that geography.
   • Regulation and Registration: GIs can be registered with IPOPHL and offer legal protection against unauthorized use.
   • Taxation of GI Products: Income derived from licensed GIs is taxable; however, certain local products may qualify for reduced tax treatment under specific laws.

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III. Enforcement and Remedies

The IP Code provides several enforcement mechanisms and remedies for IP holders, which include:

1. Administrative Complaints: IPOPHL’s Bureau of Legal Affairs accepts complaints against IP violations, where it can impose sanctions and issue injunctions.
2. Judicial Action: Civil suits may be filed in the regular courts, where IP holders can seek damages, injunctions, and the destruction of infringing goods.
3. Customs and Border Control: The Bureau of Customs is authorized to block the import and export of goods that infringe IP rights.
4. Criminal Actions: Severe infringements, such as counterfeiting, are punishable under the IP Code with imprisonment and fines.

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IV. International IP Law Compliance and Treaties

The Philippines, as part of the international IP community, is a member of various treaties and agreements, which influence local IP laws:

1. WTO TRIPS Agreement: Mandates a minimum standard for IP rights across member countries, affecting patents, copyrights, trademarks, and trade secrets.
2. Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property: Facilitates filing rights for patents, trademarks, and industrial designs across member countries.
3. Berne Convention for Copyright Protection: Ensures copyright protection for works across member states without formalities.
4. Madrid Protocol: Allows Filipino businesses to apply for trademark protection in multiple countries through a single application filed with IPOPHL.

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V. Taxation and Intellectual Property

1. Income Tax on IP Income: Revenue derived from IP (e.g., royalties, sale proceeds) is subject to standard income tax rates. For corporations, this is typically 25% (lower rates may apply to small businesses).
2. Withholding Tax on Royalties: Royalties paid to non-residents are generally subject to withholding tax, ranging from 20% to 30%, depending on treaties.
3. Capital Gains Tax on IP Transfers: Transfers of IP rights, if considered a capital asset, are subject to capital gains tax.
4. Deductions for IP-Related Expenses: The BIR allows certain deductions for costs associated with creating, developing, and maintaining IP rights.
5. VAT and IP Transactions: Licensing agreements may be subject to VAT, typically at 12%, unless exempt under special rules.
6. Treaty Relief for Foreign Entities: Treaties may provide relief or reduced tax rates for royalties and other IP-related income for foreign entities, subject to BIR compliance requirements.

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VI. Key Compliance Requirements for IP Holders

1. Annual Maintenance Fees: Patents and registered trademarks require periodic fees to maintain active status.
2. Use Requirements for Trademarks: Failure to use a registered trademark within a specified period may result in cancellation of registration.
3. Documenting Assignments and Licenses: All IP transfers, assignments, and licenses should be recorded with IPOPHL to ensure enforceability against third parties.
4. Renewals and Record-Keeping: Holders must renew IP registrations within prescribed timeframes and retain all documents for tax and legal compliance.

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VII. Emerging Trends in Philippine IP Law

1. Digital IP and Copyright in the Digital Age: The increase in digital content has led to stricter copyright enforcement online, including anti-piracy measures.
2. Stronger Anti-Counterfeit Measures: The Philippines has enhanced its enforcement mechanisms against counterfeit goods to meet international standards.
3. Data Privacy and Trade Secrets: The Data Privacy Act intersects with trade secret protections, especially regarding confidential customer or business data.

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The landscape of IP law in the Philippines is continually evolving, adapting to global standards and new technological developments. For IP holders, staying compliant with IPOPHL requirements and tax regulations is critical, ensuring that intellectual property remains a viable and protected asset.

Authority to Inquire, Freezing, and Forfeiture | Anti-Money Laundering Act (R.A. No.9160, as amended by R.A. Nos.9194, 10167, 10365, 10927, and 11521) | BANKING

Authority to Inquire, Freezing, and Forfeiture under the Anti-Money Laundering Act (R.A. No. 9160, as amended)

1. Statutory Basis and Scope of Authority

The Anti-Money Laundering Act of 2001 (AMLA), or Republic Act No. 9160, provides the legal framework in the Philippines for combating money laundering. This law has been amended multiple times, expanding the Anti-Money Laundering Council’s (AMLC) authority to inquire, freeze, and forfeit assets associated with money laundering activities. The amendments, particularly under R.A. Nos. 9194, 10167, 10365, 10927, and 11521, have broadened the powers of the AMLC to monitor and investigate suspicious financial transactions and to prevent the use of the financial system in money laundering schemes.

2. Authority to Inquire into Bank Deposits and Investments

• General Rule: The AMLC has the authority to examine bank deposits and investments to determine if they are connected to money laundering activities.
• With Court Order: Generally, the AMLC must secure a court order before inquiring into or examining bank deposits. This judicial authorization ensures a balance between the state’s interest in combatting financial crimes and the individual's right to privacy.
• Exceptions to the Court Order Requirement: Under certain conditions, the AMLC can proceed without a court order:
  • If there is probable cause that the deposits or investments are linked to any of the unlawful activities listed under the AMLA, specifically kidnapping for ransom, drug trafficking, or hijacking, among others.
  • In cases involving terrorism financing under the Terrorism Financing Prevention and Suppression Act (R.A. No. 10168).
• Confidentiality Provision: The law mandates strict confidentiality in handling such inquiries. Any person, including bank officials, who discloses the existence of an investigation or the results thereof may face criminal liability.

3. Freezing of Assets

The freezing of assets under the AMLA is a provisional remedy aimed at preserving the availability of funds that may eventually be subject to forfeiture. The freezing authority works as follows:

• Authority to Freeze: The AMLC has the authority to issue freeze orders directly, but it must seek confirmation from the Court of Appeals within 24 hours of issuing the order.
• Duration of Freeze Order:
  • An initial freeze order by the AMLC is valid for 20 days, subject to extension upon the Court of Appeals' order.
  • The Court of Appeals may extend the freeze order up to six months, depending on the merits of the case.
  • After the lapse of the freeze order, the funds can only remain frozen if forfeiture proceedings are initiated within the specified period.
• Circumstances for Immediate Freezing: The AMLA allows for the immediate freezing of assets when there is probable cause to believe that the funds are related to unlawful activities or terrorism financing, particularly in cases of urgent national security concerns.

4. Forfeiture of Assets

The final step in the AMLA process, after inquiring and freezing assets, is the forfeiture of assets related to money laundering. This process is governed by strict procedural requirements:

• Initiation of Forfeiture Proceedings:
  • The AMLC, upon gathering sufficient evidence, can initiate forfeiture proceedings before the Regional Trial Court to permanently seize assets linked to unlawful activities.
  • The action is civil in nature, meaning it targets the assets themselves rather than the individual who may have committed the unlawful activity.
• Burden of Proof:
  • The burden of proof in forfeiture cases is based on preponderance of evidence, which is a lower threshold than the criminal standard of "beyond reasonable doubt."
  • The AMLC must prove that the assets are proceeds of unlawful activities as defined by the AMLA.
• Types of Property Subject to Forfeiture: This includes any property, proceeds, or instrumentalities directly or indirectly connected to money laundering offenses.
• Return of Forfeited Assets to the State: If the court grants the forfeiture, the seized assets are turned over to the government for potential use in restitution to victims, if applicable, or for use by the government in anti-crime efforts.
• Right to Due Process: Individuals or entities whose assets are subject to forfeiture are entitled to due process, including the right to be notified of the proceedings and to be heard in court.

5. Rights of Aggrieved Parties and Remedies

• Right to Contest the Freeze Order: Any individual or entity whose accounts are frozen may file a petition to lift the freeze order, but they must provide sufficient justification.
• Protection of Bona Fide Third Parties: The law provides safeguards for bona fide third parties who may have legal rights to the frozen or forfeited property, allowing them to petition for exclusion of their assets from forfeiture if they can prove legitimate ownership.
• Appeal Process: Decisions by the AMLC or the court regarding freezing or forfeiture can be appealed to higher courts, ensuring that the process remains subject to judicial scrutiny.

6. Responsibilities of Covered Institutions

• Covered institutions, which include banks, insurance companies, securities dealers, and other financial intermediaries, are required to cooperate with the AMLC by reporting suspicious transactions and ensuring compliance with freeze orders.
• Know-Your-Customer (KYC) Rules: These institutions must adhere to strict customer identification protocols to prevent their services from being used in money laundering schemes.
• Duty of Confidentiality: While cooperating with the AMLC, covered institutions are prohibited from notifying the account holder or any other party about the existence of an AMLC inquiry, freeze, or forfeiture action.

7. International Cooperation and Mutual Legal Assistance

The AMLA, as amended, recognizes the international nature of money laundering and provides for cooperation with foreign jurisdictions:

• Requests for Assistance: The AMLC can respond to requests from foreign countries for assistance in investigating money laundering cases, freezing assets, or conducting forfeiture actions.
• Reciprocity: The AMLC may also request foreign counterparts to assist in freezing and forfeiting assets located abroad.
• Alignment with International Standards: The amendments under R.A. Nos. 10365 and 11521 bring Philippine laws in line with international standards, particularly the recommendations of the Financial Action Task Force (FATF), thereby enhancing the country's credibility in the global fight against money laundering.

8. Penalties for Violations

• Violations of the AMLA, such as non-compliance by covered institutions, tipping-off account holders, or interfering with the AMLC’s authority, are punishable by fines and imprisonment.
• Criminal Liability: Apart from civil forfeiture, individuals involved in money laundering activities may face criminal charges, with penalties including significant fines and imprisonment.

Summary

The Anti-Money Laundering Act, as amended, equips the AMLC with robust powers to prevent, detect, and sanction money laundering activities within the Philippines. The Act balances the AMLC’s authority to inquire, freeze, and forfeit assets with necessary procedural safeguards and provides mechanisms for international cooperation in the global effort against money laundering and terrorism financing.

Predicate Crimes/Unlawful Activity | Money Laundering | Anti-Money Laundering Act (R.A. No. 9160, as amended by R.A. Nos. 9194, 10167, 10365, 10927, and 11521) | BANKING

The Anti-Money Laundering Act (AMLA) of the Philippines, originally codified as Republic Act (R.A.) No. 9160 and subsequently amended by R.A. Nos. 9194, 10167, 10365, 10927, and 11521, is a comprehensive legal framework targeting the crime of money laundering in the Philippines. One of the critical components of AMLA’s enforcement is identifying and understanding predicate crimes or unlawful activities, which serve as the basis for a money-laundering offense.

Definition of Money Laundering

Under AMLA, money laundering is defined as the process by which individuals or organizations attempt to disguise the origins of proceeds obtained from criminal activities. The law criminalizes actions that involve transacting, converting, transferring, disposing, moving, acquiring, possessing, using, or concealing money or property known or should have been known to be derived from unlawful activities.

Predicate Crimes/Unlawful Activities

A predicate crime, or unlawful activity, is any criminal offense that generates proceeds that could be laundered. In the Philippines, the Anti-Money Laundering Council (AMLC) oversees and enforces AMLA. The Council has identified specific crimes and offenses that qualify as predicate crimes under the AMLA, which means that the laundering of proceeds derived from these activities constitutes a punishable offense.

Enumerated Predicate Crimes under AMLA

Under the amendments to AMLA, a comprehensive list of offenses has been designated as predicate crimes. This list includes, but is not limited to:

1. Kidnapping for Ransom (R.A. No. 8353) – Kidnapping and serious illegal detention for the purpose of extorting ransom.
2. Drug Trafficking and Related Offenses (R.A. No. 9165) – Involvement in illegal drug trade or any related illegal drug activities.
3. Graft and Corruption (R.A. No. 3019, as amended) – Any form of corruption or graft involving government officials.
4. Plunder (R.A. No. 7080) – Accumulating wealth through corrupt practices, especially by government officials.
5. Robbery and Extortion – Any robbery or extortion offense committed to obtain proceeds that could be subject to laundering.
6. Jueteng and Masiao (Illegal Gambling) – Engaging in illegal gambling operations such as jueteng or masiao.
7. Piracy (Presidential Decree No. 532, as amended) – Acts of piracy committed within or outside Philippine territory.
8. Qualified Theft – Theft with aggravating circumstances, qualifying it as more severe.
9. Swindling (Estafa) (Revised Penal Code) – Deceptive practices or schemes intended to defraud others.
10. Smuggling – Importation or exportation of goods without proper customs declaration and approval.
11. Fraudulent Practices and Other Violations of the Securities Regulation Code of 2000 – Offenses involving securities fraud, insider trading, and manipulation.
12. Forgery and Counterfeiting – Producing counterfeit currency, securities, or other financial instruments.
13. Human Trafficking (R.A. No. 9208) – Engaging in trafficking of persons, especially minors or for sexual exploitation.
14. Environmental Crimes (e.g., R.A. No. 9147, Wildlife Resources Conservation Act) – Violations against the protection of wildlife, forestry, or marine resources.
15. Terrorism and Conspiracy to Commit Terrorism (R.A. No. 9372) – Engaging in acts of terrorism or conspiring to commit terrorism.
16. Financing of Terrorism (R.A. No. 10168) – Providing funds or resources intended for terrorist acts.
17. Violations of the Anti-Trafficking in Persons Act of 2003 – Related offenses involving trafficking in persons, especially vulnerable individuals.
18. Cybercrime Offenses (R.A. No. 10175) – Including but not limited to fraud, identity theft, and cybersex.
19. Crimes of Terrorism and Other Offenses under the Human Security Act – Offenses related to acts that threaten the public’s security and safety.
20. Tax Evasion – Failure to pay correct taxes as determined by law.
21. Violations of Intellectual Property Rights – Infringement, counterfeiting, and piracy of intellectual property.
22. Financing of Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) – Direct or indirect financing of activities involving WMDs.
23. Other Crimes Punishable by More than Four (4) Years Imprisonment – The law provides for the inclusion of other crimes with penalties of over four years of imprisonment, enabling flexibility in AMLA’s scope.

Legal Implications of Predicate Crimes

When a person is charged with a money-laundering offense, the government must prove that the proceeds involved were derived from one of the predicate crimes or unlawful activities. The inclusion of these predicate crimes allows law enforcement agencies to track and investigate funds derived from illicit sources, even if the money is moved through complex financial systems. This means that a successful conviction for money laundering requires establishing a link between the accused's actions and one of the specific offenses identified as unlawful under AMLA.

Burden of Proof and Due Process

The prosecution carries the burden of proving that the funds in question are derived from predicate crimes. The AMLA permits the government to apply for freeze orders, civil forfeiture, and bank inquiries without informing the account holder, but these measures require judicial approval. However, the accused also has the right to due process and can contest claims against them.

Recent Amendments to Predicate Crimes

The amendments to AMLA have introduced additional predicate crimes and broadened the scope to align with international anti-money laundering standards. For instance:

• R.A. No. 10927 introduced requirements for casinos, identifying them as covered institutions, ensuring their compliance with AMLA in monitoring high-risk financial activities.
• R.A. No. 11521 further refined the definitions and scope of predicate crimes, specifically addressing gaps in cybersecurity, terrorism financing, and international financial obligations.

Regulatory Mechanisms

The AMLC is the principal body responsible for enforcing AMLA. Its powers include issuing freeze orders, inquiry orders, and conducting investigations. Covered institutions such as banks, casinos, insurance companies, and other financial institutions are obligated to report suspicious transactions (STRs) and threshold transactions (cash transactions exceeding ₱500,000 within one business day) to the AMLC.

Sanctions for Money Laundering Related to Predicate Crimes

Under AMLA, penalties for money laundering offenses vary depending on the offense severity:

• Imprisonment from seven to fourteen years, depending on the role of the accused in the laundering scheme.
• Fines that could amount to the value of the laundered property or the transaction itself.
• Civil Forfeiture allows the government to seize and forfeit assets related to money laundering upon conviction.
• Administrative Sanctions for financial institutions that fail to comply with reporting requirements, ranging from fines to suspension or revocation of licenses.

International Cooperation and Compliance with Global Standards

The Philippines, as a member of the Financial Action Task Force (FATF), has made these amendments to address global anti-money laundering and counter-terrorism financing standards. Compliance with FATF recommendations includes the continued expansion of predicate crimes and the enhancement of reporting and enforcement mechanisms to prevent the misuse of the financial system.

Conclusion

The designation of predicate crimes under the AMLA establishes a comprehensive framework to combat money laundering by targeting the proceeds of specified unlawful activities. This mechanism enables the AMLC and other government agencies to investigate and prosecute individuals engaged in laundering funds from criminal activities. The Philippine AMLA, with its numerous amendments, remains a crucial legal tool in aligning the country’s financial systems with international anti-money laundering norms and in protecting the integrity of the financial sector against abuse by criminal elements.