CREDIT TRANSACTIONS

Right of Redemption | Real Estate Mortgage | CREDIT TRANSACTIONS

Right of Redemption in Real Estate Mortgage (Philippine Law)

The Right of Redemption in the context of a real estate mortgage is a statutory privilege granted to a mortgagor (or other interested parties) to redeem a foreclosed property within a specified period and under certain conditions. This legal principle is embodied in the Civil Code of the Philippines, Special Laws, and jurisprudence.

Key Provisions and Principles

1. Legal Basis

  • Civil Code of the Philippines: The Civil Code provides general rules on obligations, contracts, and mortgages.
  • Act No. 3135 (Act to Regulate the Sale of Property under Special Powers Inserted in or Annexed to Real-Estate Mortgages): Governs the foreclosure of real estate mortgages and prescribes the right of redemption in extrajudicial foreclosure sales.
  • Rules of Court: Relevant for judicial foreclosure and redemption.
  • Jurisprudence: Numerous Supreme Court decisions elaborate on the nuances of the right of redemption.

2. When the Right of Redemption Applies

  • Judicial Foreclosure: If the mortgagee forecloses the property through a judicial action, the right of redemption is recognized.
  • Extrajudicial Foreclosure: When a property is foreclosed without court involvement under Act No. 3135, the right of redemption applies, but subject to conditions set in the statute.

3. Nature of the Right

  • Statutory in Nature: The right of redemption is not inherent but conferred by law, and its exercise must strictly comply with statutory requirements.
  • Time-Bound: Redemption can only be exercised within a specified period, failing which the right is lost.
  • Equitable Considerations: Courts may interpret redemption rules liberally in favor of the mortgagor to prevent unjust enrichment.

Specific Rules and Periods

A. Judicial Foreclosure (Rule 68, Rules of Court)

  • The right of redemption exists until the confirmation of the sale by the court.
  • The period to redeem is governed by the terms set forth in the judicial decree and applicable laws.
  • Redemption requires payment of:
    • The purchase price at the foreclosure sale.
    • Interest at the legal rate from the date of sale.
    • Other lawful expenses incurred by the purchaser.

B. Extrajudicial Foreclosure (Act No. 3135, as amended by Act No. 4118)

  • The right of redemption exists within one year from the registration of the certificate of sale with the Registry of Deeds.
  • To redeem, the debtor or interested party must pay:
    • The amount of the winning bid during the foreclosure auction.
    • Interest at the rate of 1% per month.
    • All other costs and expenses incurred in maintaining the property (e.g., taxes).
  • If redemption is not made within the period, the purchaser can consolidate ownership.

Who May Exercise the Right of Redemption?

  • Original Mortgagor: The borrower whose property was foreclosed.
  • Successors-in-Interest: Such as heirs, assigns, or other persons acquiring the mortgagor’s rights.
  • Judgment Creditors: Those who have obtained a judgment lien on the foreclosed property.
  • Third Parties with Interest: Others with a legally recognizable interest in the foreclosed property.

Effects of Redemption

  • Cancellation of Sale: Redemption extinguishes the purchaser’s rights and restores the mortgagor’s ownership.
  • Return of Title: The property is returned free of any liens arising from the foreclosure process.
  • Obligation Extinguished: The mortgagor’s obligation to pay the mortgage debt is deemed settled upon full redemption.

Loss of the Right of Redemption

  • Non-Exercise Within the Prescriptive Period: The right of redemption expires by operation of law if not exercised within the statutory period.
  • Waiver: Voluntary relinquishment of the right, explicitly or impliedly, bars its exercise.
  • Consolidation of Ownership: After the lapse of the redemption period, the purchaser may file for consolidation of ownership, rendering the sale final.

Prohibitions and Limitations

  • Waiver of Right of Redemption Before Sale: Any stipulation waiving the right of redemption prior to foreclosure is void as it contravenes public policy.
  • Unlawful Conditions: A mortgagee cannot impose additional conditions that effectively impede the exercise of the right of redemption.
  • Good Faith Requirement: Redemption must not be used as a tool to defraud or disadvantage the purchaser.

Notable Jurisprudence

  • Sulit v. CA (268 SCRA 441): Clarified that redemption is a substantive right that courts should uphold in favor of the mortgagor when doubt exists.
  • Union Bank v. Court of Appeals (294 SCRA 489): Held that payment of the redemption price must strictly adhere to statutory computation to be valid.
  • Gomez v. CA (405 SCRA 366): Emphasized the necessity of registering the certificate of sale to trigger the redemption period.
  • Barrozo v. CA (353 SCRA 487): Recognized the equitable nature of redemption and highlighted its role in preserving ownership rights.

Practical Considerations

  • Timely Action: Mortgagors must act quickly to determine the redemption period and ensure compliance with payment conditions.
  • Documentation: Accurate records of payments, taxes, and foreclosure proceedings are critical for exercising the right of redemption.
  • Legal Assistance: Navigating the nuances of redemption often requires professional legal guidance.

By understanding these provisions and observing due diligence, parties can effectively exercise their right of redemption or defend their interests in foreclosure proceedings.

Foreclosure | Real Estate Mortgage | CREDIT TRANSACTIONS

CIVIL LAW > VIII. CREDIT TRANSACTIONS > D. Real Estate Mortgage > 3. Foreclosure

Foreclosure of Real Estate Mortgage involves the process of enforcing the rights of a mortgagee (creditor) when the mortgagor (debtor) fails to fulfill their obligations under a real estate mortgage agreement. This remedy aims to satisfy the mortgage debt through the sale of the mortgaged property. Below is a comprehensive discussion of the foreclosure process, types, legal principles, remedies, and jurisprudence in the Philippine legal context.

I. NATURE OF FORECLOSURE

Foreclosure is a legal proceeding by which the mortgagee obtains the authority to sell the mortgaged property to satisfy a secured debt. The property acts as collateral, and foreclosure allows recovery of the loan amount in case of default.

Key Features of a Real Estate Mortgage:

  1. Accessory Obligation: A mortgage is ancillary to the principal obligation (loan or credit).
  2. Real Right: A mortgage creates a real right enforceable against third persons when duly registered.
  3. Indivisibility: The mortgage subsists in its entirety until the debt is fully satisfied.

II. TYPES OF FORECLOSURE

Under Philippine law, there are two types of foreclosure applicable to real estate mortgages:

1. Judicial Foreclosure

  • Initiated through a court proceeding.
  • Governed by Rule 68 of the Rules of Court.
  • Procedure:
    1. Filing of a verified complaint by the mortgagee.
    2. Hearing and determination of the amount due.
    3. Issuance of a judgment by the court ordering the sale of the property.
    4. Sale of the property at public auction.
    5. Application of proceeds to the mortgage debt.
    6. Issuance of a Certificate of Sale to the winning bidder.
  • Right of Redemption: The mortgagor or a junior lienholder may redeem the property within one year from the date of registration of the Certificate of Sale.

2. Extrajudicial Foreclosure

  • Done without court intervention.
  • Governed by Act No. 3135, as amended by Act No. 4118.
  • Procedure:
    1. The mortgagee issues a notice of default and demands payment.
    2. The mortgagee files a petition with a Notary Public or the Register of Deeds.
    3. Publication of the Notice of Sale in a newspaper of general circulation once a week for three consecutive weeks.
    4. Posting of the Notice of Sale in a conspicuous public place.
    5. Conduct of the auction sale by the Sheriff or Notary Public.
    6. Issuance of a Certificate of Sale to the highest bidder.
  • Equity of Redemption: The mortgagor may redeem the property before the sale is finalized.

III. DISTINCTION BETWEEN EQUITY OF REDEMPTION AND RIGHT OF REDEMPTION

  1. Equity of Redemption:
    • Available in both judicial and extrajudicial foreclosures.
    • Refers to the mortgagor’s right to settle the mortgage debt before the foreclosure sale.
  2. Right of Redemption:
    • Exclusive to judicial foreclosures.
    • Allows the mortgagor or any interested party to repurchase the property within one year after the auction sale.

IV. LEGAL REQUIREMENTS AND PROCEDURAL CONSIDERATIONS

1. Valid Mortgage Agreement

  • The real estate mortgage must:
    • Be in writing and comply with the Statute of Frauds.
    • Be registered with the Register of Deeds to bind third parties.

2. Notice Requirements

  • Notices must strictly comply with statutory requirements to protect the mortgagor’s rights.
  • Defects in notice (e.g., improper publication or posting) render the foreclosure void.

3. Compliance with Publication

  • Extrajudicial foreclosures require:
    • Publication in a newspaper of general circulation.
    • Strict adherence to publication timelines.

4. Deficiency Judgment

  • If the foreclosure sale proceeds are insufficient to cover the mortgage debt, the mortgagee may file for a deficiency judgment to recover the balance.
  • This applies to both judicial and extrajudicial foreclosures.

V. DEFENSES AGAINST FORECLOSURE

  1. Payment or Satisfaction of Debt: Proves that the mortgage obligation has been discharged.
  2. Defects in the Mortgage Contract: Challenges the validity of the mortgage (e.g., fraud, lack of consideration).
  3. Improper Notice or Publication: Raises procedural defects in the foreclosure process.
  4. Tender of Payment: Asserts that the mortgagor offered to pay the debt but was refused by the mortgagee.

VI. RELEVANT JURISPRUDENCE

  1. Sulit v. CA (G.R. No. 116599):

    • Strict compliance with notice and publication requirements is mandatory in extrajudicial foreclosure.

  2. Development Bank of the Philippines v. Licuanan (G.R. No. 158498):

    • Failure to comply with procedural requisites invalidates the foreclosure sale.

  3. Consolidated Bank and Trust Corporation v. CA (G.R. No. 138569):

    • A mortgagor may assert a lack of demand as a defense in judicial foreclosures.

  4. Union Bank v. SPS. Santibañez (G.R. No. 149926):

    • Clarifies the application of the right of redemption in judicial foreclosures.

VII. TAX IMPLICATIONS

  1. The winning bidder assumes liability for capital gains tax (if not a financial institution).
  2. Documentary stamp taxes and transfer fees apply during the sale and registration process.

VIII. PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS

  1. Consolidation of Title:

    • After foreclosure and expiration of the redemption period, the mortgagee must consolidate ownership by registering the Certificate of Sale.

  2. Possession of Property:

    • The mortgagee may seek a writ of possession after consolidation, provided the foreclosure was valid.

  3. Consumer Protection:

    • The Maceda Law (R.A. 6552) offers additional protections for buyers of real estate on installment who are subject to foreclosure.

IX. CONCLUSION

Foreclosure of real estate mortgage is a remedy designed to balance the rights of creditors and debtors. Compliance with statutory and procedural requirements is essential to ensure its validity. Courts meticulously scrutinize the process to protect the interests of both parties, and any procedural lapses may nullify the foreclosure proceedings. Legal practitioners must exercise diligence in observing the statutory requirements and advocating for their clients' interests.

Characteristics | Real Estate Mortgage | CREDIT TRANSACTIONS

Characteristics of a Real Estate Mortgage under Civil Law

A Real Estate Mortgage (REM) is a contract whereby the debtor secures an obligation by subjecting immovable property (real estate) to the fulfillment of such obligation, without transferring ownership. Below are the detailed characteristics of an REM as governed by Philippine Civil Law:

1. Accessory Contract

  • A real estate mortgage is an accessory contract, meaning it cannot exist independently but depends on the principal obligation it secures.
  • If the principal obligation is extinguished, the mortgage is likewise extinguished (Article 1231, Civil Code).

2. Real Right

  • Once registered, a real estate mortgage creates a real right over the immovable property.
  • This real right follows the property, regardless of who possesses it (principle of lex rei sitae).

3. Formal Contract

  • The real estate mortgage must comply with the formal requirements of law to be valid:
    • It must be in writing (Article 2125, Civil Code).
    • If it involves properties required by law to be registered, it must also be registered with the Register of Deeds to bind third parties.
    • Lack of registration makes the mortgage valid only between the contracting parties but not against third persons (Article 2125).

4. Non-Transfer of Ownership

  • Ownership of the mortgaged property remains with the mortgagor.
  • The creditor (mortgagee) only has the right to foreclose and sell the property in case of default.

5. Indivisibility

  • The mortgage is indivisible, meaning:
    • It subsists as a whole over the entire property even if the debt is partially paid (Article 2089, Civil Code).
    • Partial satisfaction of the debt does not correspondingly extinguish the mortgage over any specific portion of the property.
  • This principle ensures that the mortgagee’s security is not compromised until full payment.

6. Right to Foreclose

  • In case of default, the creditor may foreclose the mortgage to satisfy the obligation.
  • Foreclosure may be judicial (through court proceedings) or extrajudicial (pursuant to Act No. 3135, as amended by Act No. 4118).

7. Limitation to Obligation Secured

  • A mortgage is merely a security for an obligation; it does not create or give rise to a debt.
  • The debt or principal obligation must exist independently of the mortgage.

8. Special Rule on Future Obligations

  • A mortgage may secure future advancements or obligations stipulated in the agreement, provided the advancements or obligations are clearly contemplated in the contract (Article 2126).

9. Right of Redemption

  • In cases of extrajudicial foreclosure, the mortgagor retains a right of redemption under Act No. 3135.
    • Redemption must be exercised within one year from the date of registration of the certificate of sale.
  • In judicial foreclosures, the period of redemption is determined by the rules of court and typically exists until the court's confirmation of the sale.

10. Coverage of Immovables

  • Only immovable property (e.g., land, buildings) and their accessories may be subject to a real estate mortgage.
  • The accessories include natural fruits, industrial fruits, and civil fruits if stipulated (Article 2127).

11. Stipulations Not Contrary to Law

  • Parties may freely stipulate terms in the contract, provided these are not contrary to law, morals, good customs, public order, or public policy (Article 1306, Civil Code).
  • Pactum commissorium (automatic appropriation of the mortgaged property by the creditor in case of default) is prohibited and void (Article 2088).

12. Requirement of Default

  • The mortgagee’s right to foreclose only arises upon the debtor’s default in fulfilling the obligation.

13. No Deficiency Judgment in Extrajudicial Foreclosure

  • In extrajudicial foreclosures, if the proceeds of the sale are insufficient to cover the debt, the mortgagee is prohibited from recovering the deficiency through personal action against the debtor unless the mortgagor is a juridical person (Act No. 3135).

14. Priority of Claims

  • The mortgagee has a preferential right over the proceeds of the foreclosure sale.
  • If multiple mortgages exist, the priority is determined by the order of registration in the Register of Deeds.

15. Extinguishment of Mortgage

A real estate mortgage is extinguished upon:

  • Full payment or performance of the obligation.
  • Abandonment or cancellation of the mortgage contract.
  • Foreclosure and exhaustion of the mortgaged property.

16. Applicability of General Provisions on Obligations and Contracts

  • General principles on obligations and contracts apply, including rules on:
    • Consent, object, and cause (essential requisites of a contract).
    • Nullity of contracts that lack essential elements or violate prohibitory laws.

By understanding these characteristics, parties can properly structure a real estate mortgage contract while ensuring compliance with Philippine Civil Law.

Requisites | Real Estate Mortgage | CREDIT TRANSACTIONS

CIVIL LAW

VIII. CREDIT TRANSACTIONS

D. Real Estate Mortgage

1. Requisites

A real estate mortgage is a contract whereby the debtor or a third person secures the performance of an obligation by subjecting immovable property or real rights over immovable property to the fulfillment of the obligation, with the condition that if the obligation is not fulfilled, the creditor may cause the property to be sold in a public auction and apply the proceeds to the satisfaction of the debt. The governing provisions can be found under the Civil Code of the Philippines, specifically Articles 2085 to 2123.

Requisites of a Real Estate Mortgage

A. Essential Requisites

  1. Principal Obligation Must Be Valid

    • The mortgage is an accessory contract, meaning there must be a valid principal obligation (e.g., a loan, debt, or any obligation secured by the mortgage).
    • If the principal obligation is void, the mortgage is also void. However, if the principal obligation is merely voidable or unenforceable, the mortgage may still be enforced until annulled or declared void.

  2. The Mortgagor Must Have Free Disposal of the Property or Legal Authority to Constitute the Mortgage

    • The mortgagor must own the property being mortgaged or be authorized to mortgage it, as ownership or legal authority is necessary to create a valid lien.
    • A co-owner may only mortgage their undivided share unless consent from other co-owners is obtained.

  3. Subject Matter Must Be Determinate Immovable Property or Real Rights Over Immovables

    • The property must be identifiable and must consist of:
      • Immovable property (e.g., land, buildings); or
      • Real rights over immovables (e.g., usufruct, easement).
    • The property must also be alienable, meaning it cannot be subject to prohibitions against alienation or encumbrance (e.g., public lands or properties subject to a prohibition under special laws).

  4. Formal Requirements (Article 2125, Civil Code)

    • The mortgage must be constituted in a public instrument.
    • It must be registered with the Registry of Property to bind third parties.
    • Absence of registration does not render the mortgage void but merely makes it ineffective against third parties.

B. Special Requisites

  1. Stipulation on Redemption

    • There can be no pactum commissorium (automatic appropriation of the mortgaged property by the creditor in case of default), as this is expressly prohibited by law (Article 2088, Civil Code).
    • Redemption periods for mortgages are governed by special laws, such as the General Banking Law or Maceda Law, depending on the nature of the loan and debtor.

  2. Obligations Secured Must Be Future, Past, or Contingent

    • A mortgage may secure obligations already existing, future obligations (e.g., credit lines), or contingent obligations.
    • Future obligations must be specified or determinable, and the contract must clearly indicate this intent.

  3. Indivisibility of the Mortgage

    • The mortgage is indivisible (Article 2089, Civil Code). This means that even if the debt is partially paid, the mortgage subsists until the entire obligation is satisfied unless expressly stipulated otherwise.
    • This rule does not apply to divisible obligations when the property mortgaged is physically divisible and there is express agreement allowing division.

C. Effects of Non-Compliance with Requisites

  1. As to Non-Registration

    • If the mortgage is not registered, it is valid and binding between the parties but not against third parties.
    • Unregistered mortgages cannot prejudice subsequent purchasers or encumbrancers in good faith.

  2. As to Lack of Public Instrument

    • If the mortgage is not in a public instrument, it is void.

  3. As to Lack of Ownership or Legal Authority

    • If the mortgagor is not the owner or lacks authority, the mortgage is void, but it may give rise to an action for damages if there was bad faith or fraud.

  4. As to Invalidity of the Principal Obligation

    • A void principal obligation renders the mortgage void. However, a voidable or unenforceable obligation does not automatically void the mortgage.

Legal Effects of Real Estate Mortgage

Rights of the Mortgagee (Creditor)

  1. Right to Foreclose

    • In case of default by the mortgagor, the mortgagee may file for foreclosure to sell the property in a public auction.

  2. Right to Apply Proceeds to the Debt

    • The mortgagee has a preference to apply the proceeds of the sale to the satisfaction of the debt.

  3. Right to Retain Lien Until Obligation Is Fully Satisfied

    • The mortgage subsists until the obligation is fully paid, regardless of partial payments.

Rights and Obligations of the Mortgagor (Debtor)

  1. Right to Possession

    • The mortgagor retains possession of the property unless otherwise stipulated.

  2. Right of Redemption

    • Redemption rights are governed by the terms of the mortgage or by law (e.g., one-year redemption period under the Rules of Court for judicial foreclosures).

  3. Obligation to Pay the Principal Debt

    • The mortgagor must fulfill the principal obligation to extinguish the mortgage.

Foreclosure of Mortgage

  1. Judicial Foreclosure

    • Initiated by filing a court case; governed by Rule 68 of the Rules of Court.
    • The mortgagor has a one-year redemption period from the date of registration of the certificate of sale.

  2. Extrajudicial Foreclosure

    • Allowed if there is a special power of attorney in the mortgage contract.
    • Governed by Act No. 3135 (as amended by Act No. 4118).
    • Redemption period depends on whether the mortgage involves a natural person or a juridical entity.

  3. Deficiency Judgment

    • If the proceeds of the foreclosure sale are insufficient to satisfy the debt, the creditor may file an action for the deficiency unless otherwise stipulated.

This comprehensive framework ensures that all legal requisites and effects surrounding real estate mortgages in the Philippines are meticulously applied and adhered to, safeguarding the interests of both creditors and debtors.

Real Estate Mortgage | CREDIT TRANSACTIONS

CIVIL LAW > VIII. CREDIT TRANSACTIONS > D. REAL ESTATE MORTGAGE

A Real Estate Mortgage (REM) is a contractual arrangement where the owner of real property (the mortgagor) grants a security interest over the property in favor of a creditor (the mortgagee) to secure the performance of a principal obligation. This is governed by Articles 2085 to 2123 of the Civil Code of the Philippines and pertinent jurisprudence.

I. ESSENTIAL REQUISITES OF A REAL ESTATE MORTGAGE

Under Article 2085, the following requisites must be present for a mortgage to be valid:

  1. Existence of a Principal Obligation
    The mortgage is merely an accessory contract, meaning it cannot exist without a valid principal obligation (e.g., loan or debt).

    • If the principal obligation is void, the mortgage is also void.
    • However, the nullity of the mortgage does not necessarily affect the validity of the principal obligation.

  2. Ownership of the Mortgaged Property
    The mortgagor must own the property or have the authority to encumber it.

    • Third-party mortgages are allowed where the mortgagor is not the debtor but consents to encumber their property as security for another’s obligation.

  3. Compliance with Formal Requirements

    • Form: Under Article 1358, a contract creating a mortgage must appear in a public instrument.
    • Registration: The mortgage must be registered in the Register of Deeds to bind third parties under the Property Registration Decree (P.D. 1529). Without registration, the mortgage is valid only between the contracting parties.

  4. Specification of Obligation Secured
    The obligation secured by the mortgage must be clearly stated. Ambiguities in the amount or scope of the obligation may render the mortgage unenforceable.

II. RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS OF PARTIES

A. Mortgagor (Owner of the Property)

  1. Right to Possess the Property
    The mortgagor retains possession of the mortgaged property unless there is a contrary stipulation (Article 2128).

  2. Obligation to Pay the Principal Obligation
    The mortgagor must ensure compliance with the obligation secured by the mortgage.

  3. Prohibition Against Alienation Without Consent
    The mortgagor cannot validly sell or encumber the mortgaged property without the mortgagee’s consent, if stipulated.

B. Mortgagee (Creditor)

  1. Right to Foreclosure
    If the principal obligation is breached, the mortgagee has the right to foreclose the mortgage, either judicially or extrajudicially.

  2. Obligation to Return the Title
    Upon full payment of the obligation, the mortgagee must cancel the mortgage and return the certificate of title to the mortgagor.

III. REGISTRATION OF MORTGAGE

  1. Purpose of Registration

    • To bind third parties and provide notice of the encumbrance on the property.
    • Registration must be done in the Registry of Deeds where the property is located.

  2. Effect of Non-Registration

    • The mortgage remains valid between the parties but does not prejudice third parties who acquire rights in good faith and for value.

IV. FORECLOSURE OF REAL ESTATE MORTGAGE

Foreclosure is the legal process by which the mortgagee seeks to recover the debt by selling the mortgaged property. This can be done either judicially or extrajudicially.

A. Judicial Foreclosure

  1. Governing Law: Rule 68 of the Rules of Court.

  2. Procedure:

    • Filing a verified complaint for foreclosure.
    • Issuance of a judgment ordering the debtor to pay or, in default, selling the property at a public auction.
    • Sale proceeds are applied to the debt, with any surplus returned to the mortgagor.

  3. Right of Redemption:

    • The mortgagor has a right to redeem the property within one year from the registration of the sale.

B. Extrajudicial Foreclosure

  1. Governing Law: Act No. 3135 (as amended by Act No. 4118).

  2. Procedure:

    • A special power of attorney authorizing foreclosure must be embodied in the mortgage deed.
    • Filing of the foreclosure application with the Office of the Sheriff.
    • Auction of the property without court intervention.

  3. Equity of Redemption:

    • In extrajudicial foreclosure, the mortgagor has the right to redeem only before the foreclosure sale is finalized.

  4. Publication Requirement:

    • Notice of sale must be published in a newspaper of general circulation for three consecutive weeks.

V. OTHER IMPORTANT DOCTRINES

  1. Pactum Commissorium (Article 2088)

    • A stipulation that ownership of the mortgaged property shall automatically pass to the mortgagee upon default is void. The remedy is foreclosure, not automatic ownership transfer.

  2. Indivisibility of Mortgage (Article 2089)

    • A mortgage remains indivisible even if the debt is divided among heirs or successors. Payment of part of the debt does not extinguish the mortgage.

  3. Extent of the Mortgage

    • A mortgage includes all accessions, improvements, and fruits of the property unless otherwise stipulated.

VI. REMEDIES IN CASE OF BREACH

  1. Action to Foreclose: Judicial or extrajudicial foreclosure depending on the stipulations in the mortgage contract.
  2. Action for Deficiency: After foreclosure, if the proceeds of the sale are insufficient to satisfy the debt, the creditor may file a separate action for the deficiency.

VII. JURISPRUDENTIAL PRINCIPLES

  1. Registration as Constructive Notice

    • Rizal Commercial Banking Corporation v. CA (1993): Registration of the mortgage in the Registry of Deeds constitutes constructive notice to third parties.

  2. Nullity of Pactum Commissorium

    • Spouses Belisario v. IAC (1988): A stipulation that the property automatically becomes the creditor’s upon default is contrary to public policy.

  3. Applicability of Redemption Rights

    • Paderes v. CA (1992): The right of redemption or equity of redemption must be exercised strictly within the period provided by law.

VIII. REAL ESTATE MORTGAGE VS. OTHER CREDIT TRANSACTIONS

  1. REM vs. Pledge:

    • Pledge involves movable property; REM involves real property.
    • Possession of pledged property is transferred to the creditor.

  2. REM vs. Antichresis:

    • In antichresis, the creditor may use the fruits of the property to apply against the debt.
    • In REM, fruits remain with the mortgagor unless stipulated.

  3. REM vs. Chattel Mortgage:

    • Chattel mortgage involves movable property; REM pertains to immovable property.
    • Registration processes differ under the Property Registration Decree and Chattel Mortgage Law.

IX. CONCLUSION

A Real Estate Mortgage is a critical instrument in credit transactions, balancing the creditor's right to secure repayment with the debtor's right to retain ownership and possession until default. Proper understanding of its requisites, effects, and remedies ensures protection of parties' rights while adhering to the law's requirements.

Legal and Judicial Bonds | Guaranty and Suretyship | CREDIT TRANSACTIONS

CIVIL LAW: CREDIT TRANSACTIONS > GUARANTY AND SURETYSHIP > LEGAL AND JUDICIAL BONDS

Overview

Legal and judicial bonds are specific applications of the concepts of guaranty and suretyship under the Civil Code of the Philippines. They arise primarily in legal proceedings or in compliance with statutory obligations. These bonds serve to secure the performance of an obligation or the payment of a liability.

Key Concepts

  1. Nature of Bonds

    • A bond is a written agreement whereby one party (the surety) guarantees the performance of an obligation by another (the principal) to a third party (the obligee).
    • Legal and judicial bonds specifically arise in the context of legal proceedings or statutory requirements.

  2. Legal Basis

    • Governed by Title XV, Chapter 3 of the Civil Code (Guaranty and Suretyship).
    • Rules on bonds in judicial proceedings are also covered under procedural law, particularly in the Rules of Court.

  3. Types of Bonds

    • Legal Bonds: Required by law or regulation, often related to compliance with administrative or statutory requirements.
    • Judicial Bonds: Required by courts in legal proceedings, intended to secure the enforcement of judicial orders or judgments.

  4. Characteristics

    • Accessory Contract: Bonds are accessory to the principal obligation. If the principal obligation is extinguished, the bond is likewise extinguished.
    • Unilateral: The bond is enforceable against the surety even if the principal debtor defaults.
    • Solidary Obligation: In many cases, the surety assumes joint and several liability with the principal debtor.

Legal Bonds

Legal bonds are imposed by statutory law to ensure compliance with legal requirements. Common instances include:

  1. Fidelity Bonds

    • Required of public officials or employees handling public funds or properties.
    • Secures accountability for financial loss or mismanagement.

  2. Customs Bonds

    • Mandated by customs laws to ensure compliance with import/export regulations.
    • Examples: Bonds for the release of imported goods pending duties payment.

  3. Performance Bonds

    • Required in government procurement or construction contracts.
    • Guarantees the fulfillment of contractual obligations.

  4. Bail Bonds in Non-Judicial Contexts

    • Bonds may also be required in quasi-judicial proceedings to ensure a party's compliance.

Judicial Bonds

Judicial bonds are specifically required by courts in the course of litigation to safeguard the rights of parties and ensure compliance with judicial orders. Common examples include:

  1. Bail Bond (Rule 114, Rules of Court)

    • Posted by an accused in a criminal case to secure provisional liberty while ensuring appearance in court proceedings.
    • Amount determined based on the offense and judicial discretion.

  2. Attachment Bond (Rule 57, Rules of Court)

    • Posted by a plaintiff in a civil case seeking a writ of attachment.
    • Ensures indemnity to the defendant for damages if the attachment is wrongfully issued.

  3. Replevin Bond (Rule 60, Rules of Court)

    • Posted by a plaintiff seeking possession of personal property.
    • Guarantees the return of the property if the court adjudges in favor of the defendant.

  4. Injunction Bond (Rule 58, Rules of Court)

    • Required for the issuance of a preliminary injunction.
    • Secures damages to the adverse party if the injunction is later determined to have been improperly issued.

  5. Supersedeas Bond (Rule 39, Rules of Court)

    • Required to stay the execution of a judgment pending appeal.
    • Ensures the judgment's satisfaction if the appeal is unsuccessful.

  6. Administrator/Executor Bonds (Rule 81, Rules of Court)

    • Required for estate administrators or executors to secure the proper administration of the decedent's estate.

  7. Indemnity Bonds

    • Required in various circumstances to protect against potential damages due to wrongful actions by the party obtaining the bond.

Parties Involved

  1. Principal: The party primarily obligated to perform or comply.
  2. Surety: The guarantor, often a bonding or insurance company.
  3. Obligee: The party in whose favor the bond is issued.

Requisites for Enforcement

  1. Written Agreement: Legal and judicial bonds must be in writing to be enforceable.
  2. Specific Obligation: The bond must identify the obligation it secures.
  3. Capacity of Parties: All parties to the bond must have legal capacity to enter into the contract.

Liability of the Surety

  1. Extent of Liability

    • The surety’s liability is typically coextensive with that of the principal debtor.
    • The surety cannot be held liable for more than what is stipulated in the bond.

  2. Immediate Enforcement

    • The obligee can directly sue the surety without exhausting remedies against the principal.

  3. Defenses

    • Fraud, duress, or illegality in the execution of the bond.
    • Discharge of the principal obligation.

Termination of Bonds

  1. Satisfaction of Obligation: The bond is extinguished once the obligation is performed.
  2. Expiration: Bonds may have a specified duration after which they are no longer enforceable.
  3. Release by Obligee: Voluntary release by the obligee extinguishes liability.

Notable Doctrines and Jurisprudence

  1. Solidary Liability of the Surety
    • In judicial bonds, the surety assumes solidary liability with the principal, ensuring enforceability even in cases of principal default.
  2. No Benefit of Exhaustion
    • Unlike guarantors, sureties are not entitled to the benefit of exhaustion under Article 2058 of the Civil Code.
  3. Good Faith in Issuance
    • Courts have emphasized the requirement of good faith in securing and executing bonds, especially in public or judicial functions.

Practical Considerations

  1. Insurance Companies and Surety Firms

    • Most bonds are issued by accredited bonding or insurance companies.
    • These entities often require counter-guarantees from the principal.

  2. Costs and Premiums

    • Bonds typically require the payment of premiums, which are calculated based on the amount guaranteed.

  3. Court Approval

    • Judicial bonds often require approval from the court as to sufficiency and form.

By understanding the legal and judicial bond framework, parties can navigate credit transactions and court proceedings more effectively while safeguarding their interests.

Extinguishment of Guaranty | Guaranty and Suretyship | CREDIT TRANSACTIONS

Extinguishment of Guaranty

In the Philippine legal context, the extinguishment of a guaranty is governed primarily by the Civil Code of the Philippines and other applicable laws. A guaranty, being an accessory obligation, is extinguished when the principal obligation to which it is attached is extinguished, among other specific instances. Below is an exhaustive discussion on the rules governing the extinguishment of guaranty:

1. General Rule: Extinguishment of Principal Obligation Extinguishes Guaranty

  • Nature of Guaranty as Accessory Obligation
    Article 2052 of the Civil Code states that a guaranty is an accessory obligation and exists only as long as the principal obligation exists. If the principal obligation is extinguished, the guaranty is also extinguished.

  • Modes of Extinguishment of Principal Obligation
    The guaranty is extinguished if the principal obligation is extinguished by any of the following:

    • Payment or performance (Art. 1231)
    • Loss of the thing due (Art. 1262-1265)
    • Condonation or remission of the debt (Art. 1270)
    • Confusion or merger of rights of creditor and debtor (Art. 1275)
    • Compensation (Art. 1278)
    • Novation (Art. 1291)

2. Specific Modes of Extinguishment of Guaranty

The guaranty may also be extinguished independently of the principal obligation due to circumstances affecting the guaranty itself, as follows:

A. By the Release of the Guarantor

  • Article 2076: The guarantor may be released by the creditor, either expressly or impliedly.
  • If the creditor waives the guaranty without extinguishing the principal obligation, the guarantor is discharged from liability.

B. By the Extinguishment of the Principal Obligation

  • As previously noted, any valid extinguishment of the principal obligation extinguishes the guaranty.

C. By Prescription

  • The obligation of the guarantor prescribes at the same time as the principal obligation. However, actions to enforce the guaranty may be subject to different prescription periods, depending on the circumstances (e.g., obligations subject to the ten-year or six-year prescription periods under Articles 1144 and 1145).

D. By the Beneficiary’s Actions

  1. Release of Securities or Collaterals

    • If the creditor releases securities or collaterals given by the debtor or guarantor without the guarantor's consent, the guaranty is extinguished to the extent of the value of the released securities (Art. 2081).

  2. Failure to Act Against the Principal Debtor

    • If the creditor’s negligence or acts impair the guarantor’s right to reimbursement or subrogation against the principal debtor, the guaranty may be extinguished.

E. By Novation of the Principal Obligation

  • If the terms of the principal obligation are substantially changed without the guarantor's consent, the guaranty is extinguished unless the guarantor agrees to the changes (Art. 1291).

F. By the Death of the Guarantor

  • The Civil Code provides that the guarantor’s heirs are bound to fulfill the obligation only to the extent of the assets inherited (Art. 2060). If the estate is insufficient, the guaranty is extinguished.

G. By Other Grounds Specific to the Guaranty

  • If the guaranty was conditional, and the condition fails or does not occur, the guaranty is extinguished.
  • A guaranty may also terminate if it is limited to a specific period or amount and that period lapses or the amount is fully satisfied.

3. Legal Provisions on Continuing Guaranty

Nature of Continuing Guaranty

  • A continuing guaranty, which secures future debts or obligations, is extinguished upon:
    • The express revocation by the guarantor as to future transactions, provided that the creditor is duly notified (Art. 2059).
    • The lapse of the specified period within which the guaranty operates.

Creditor's Waiver or Acts

  • The creditor’s waiver of the continuing nature of the guaranty or its unilateral discharge may also extinguish it.

4. The Guarantor’s Subrogation and Extinguishment

  • Once a guarantor pays the obligation of the debtor, the guarantor is subrogated to the rights of the creditor against the debtor (Art. 2067).
  • However, if the creditor impairs these rights by condonation, release, or failure to secure the debtor's collateral, the guarantor’s obligation is proportionally extinguished.

5. Suretyship Distinguished from Guaranty

Although suretyship is closely related to guaranty, their extinguishment may differ due to the solidary nature of suretyship:

  • A surety may be discharged by acts of the creditor impairing its rights to reimbursement, just like a guarantor.
  • However, the strict application of solidary liability in suretyship may sometimes require explicit provisions to extinguish the obligation.

Key Jurisprudence

Several Supreme Court cases provide clarity on the extinguishment of guaranty:

  1. Sps. Yu vs. CA (2002)
    • Clarifies that the release of the principal obligation extinguishes the guaranty unless expressly reserved.
  2. PNB vs. CA (1999)
    • Establishes that the release of a co-guarantor does not necessarily discharge the remaining guarantors unless otherwise stipulated.

This comprehensive outline demonstrates that the extinguishment of guaranty involves both general rules tied to the principal obligation and specific rules that recognize the unique nature of the guaranty relationship.

Effects of Guaranty | Guaranty and Suretyship | CREDIT TRANSACTIONS

CIVIL LAW > VIII. CREDIT TRANSACTIONS > C. GUARANTY AND SURETYSHIP > 2. EFFECTS OF GUARANTY

The topic of "Effects of Guaranty" under Guaranty and Suretyship is governed by the Civil Code of the Philippines. Guaranty and suretyship are governed by obligations and contract law principles, with specific provisions that regulate their effects on the principal, guarantor/surety, and creditor. Below is a meticulous and comprehensive discussion:

1. Definition and Nature of Guaranty

  • Guaranty is defined under Article 2047 of the Civil Code:
    • It is a contract whereby a person (the guarantor) binds himself to the creditor to fulfill the obligation of the principal debtor in case the latter fails to do so.
  • Nature of Liability: The guarantor’s liability is secondary and subsidiary, meaning that the guarantor only becomes liable if the principal debtor fails to perform his obligation.
  • Personal Obligation: The guarantor binds his own property, distinct from the principal debtor’s obligation.

2. Effects of Guaranty on the Principal Parties

A. Between the Guarantor and the Creditor

  1. Creditor’s Rights Against the Guarantor:

    • The guarantor becomes liable only upon default of the principal debtor.
    • The guarantor is entitled to require the creditor to exhaust all legal remedies against the principal debtor before proceeding against him (Article 2058, Civil Code). This is the benefit of excussion.

  2. Exceptions to the Benefit of Excussion: Under Article 2059, the guarantor cannot invoke the benefit of excussion in the following cases:

    • If he has expressly renounced it.
    • If he has bound himself solidarily with the principal debtor.
    • If the principal debtor is insolvent.
    • If the principal debtor cannot be sued within the Philippines unless he left without the creditor's consent.
    • If it is evident that an execution on the debtor's property would not result in satisfaction of the obligation.

  3. Extent of Liability:

    • The guarantor cannot be held liable for more than what is stipulated in the contract (Article 2054). If the obligation is conditional, the guaranty is also conditional.

  4. Subrogation of Rights:

    • Upon payment by the guarantor, he is subrogated to all the rights of the creditor against the principal debtor (Article 2067).

B. Between the Guarantor and the Principal Debtor

  1. Right to Reimbursement:

    • The guarantor who has paid the debt has the right to reimbursement from the principal debtor (Article 2066). The amount includes:
      • The total amount paid.
      • Interest from the time of payment.
      • Any expenses incurred by the guarantor due to the guaranty, provided these are reasonable and justified.

  2. Action for Exoneration:

    • Under Article 2071, the guarantor can compel the debtor to make provisions for the payment of the debt before the guarantor has paid:
      • When the debtor becomes insolvent.
      • When the debtor has failed to pay the debt after it has become due.
      • When the debt becomes demandable by reason of the expiration of the term.
      • When the guarantor is sued for payment.

  3. Effect of Payment Without Notification:

    • If the guarantor pays without notifying the principal debtor, and the debtor pays as well, the guarantor loses his right to reimbursement (Article 2066).

C. Between Co-Guarantors

  1. Right to Contribution:

    • If there are multiple guarantors for the same debtor and debt, and one pays more than his share, he may demand proportional contribution from his co-guarantors (Article 2073).

  2. Extent of Contribution:

    • The contribution is based on the amount each guarantor agreed to be liable for. However, if a co-guarantor is insolvent, his share is borne proportionately by the others.

3. Effects of Guaranty on Third Parties

  • The guaranty does not create any obligation or burden on third parties unless there is a stipulation expressly binding them.

4. Defenses Available to the Guarantor

  1. Defenses Derived from the Principal Obligation:

    • The guarantor may set up defenses which the principal debtor could have invoked, such as:
      • Nullity of the principal obligation.
      • Prescription of the obligation.
      • Payment or performance by the debtor.

  2. Defenses Personal to the Guarantor:

    • The guarantor may invoke personal defenses, such as:
      • Lack of consent to the guaranty.
      • Expiration or invalidity of the guaranty.

5. Extinguishment of Guaranty

The guaranty is extinguished under the following circumstances:

  1. Extinguishment of the Principal Obligation:
    • Since the guaranty is accessory, its extinguishment follows the principal obligation.
  2. Novation:
    • Any substantial change in the terms of the principal obligation made without the guarantor’s consent releases him from liability (Article 2079).
  3. Release by the Creditor:
    • If the creditor releases the guarantor or impairs the guarantor’s rights against the principal debtor (e.g., through condonation), the guaranty is extinguished.
  4. Loss of Security:
    • If the creditor, through his fault, causes the guarantor to lose his right to be subrogated to the securities given by the debtor, the guarantor is proportionally released (Article 2080).

6. Suretyship Distinguished from Guaranty

Though often used interchangeably, guaranty and suretyship differ in key aspects:

  • In suretyship, the surety’s liability is primary and solidary, meaning the creditor may directly demand payment from the surety without first proceeding against the principal debtor.
  • In guaranty, the guarantor’s liability is subsidiary, contingent upon the debtor's default.

Key Jurisprudence

  1. Development Bank of the Philippines v. Prudential Bank (1997):
    • Established that guaranty is purely accessory and contingent.
  2. Manila Surety and Fidelity Co., Inc. v. Batu Construction (1969):
    • Highlighted that the surety’s liability is primary and akin to that of the principal debtor.

This exhaustive outline ensures clarity on the effects of guaranty under Philippine Civil Law.

Nature and Extent of Guaranty | Guaranty and Suretyship | CREDIT TRANSACTIONS

CIVIL LAW > VIII. CREDIT TRANSACTIONS > C. GUARANTY AND SURETYSHIP > 1. NATURE AND EXTENT OF GUARANTY

Definition and Concept of Guaranty

A guaranty is a contract where a person, called the guarantor, binds himself to the creditor to fulfill the obligation of the principal debtor in case the latter fails to do so. This contract is governed by Articles 2047 to 2084 of the Civil Code of the Philippines.

Characteristics of a Guaranty

  1. Accessory Contract - A guaranty cannot exist without a valid principal obligation. If the principal obligation is void, the guaranty is also void.
  2. Subsidiary Obligation - The guarantor's liability is secondary; the creditor must exhaust the debtor's properties first (Article 2058), except in certain cases (e.g., insolvency, waiver of excussion).
  3. Consensual - A guaranty is perfected by the mere agreement of the parties; no delivery of an object is necessary.
  4. Unilateral or Bilateral - It may be unilateral when only the guarantor has obligations, or bilateral if the creditor has reciprocal obligations.

Kinds of Guaranty

  1. As to Source:

    • Legal Guaranty: Imposed by law (e.g., liability of a guardian or administrator).
    • Conventional Guaranty: Arises from the will of the parties.
    • Judicial Guaranty: Provided by order of the court (e.g., posting of a bond).

  2. As to Object:

    • Guaranty of Payment: Guarantor is liable immediately upon default.
    • Guaranty of Performance: Ensures the debtor fulfills a specific act.

  3. As to Extent:

    • Specific Guaranty: Limited to a particular obligation.
    • Continuing Guaranty: Applies to a series of transactions (Article 2053).

Extent of Guarantor’s Liability

  1. Limited to the Principal Obligation:

    • The guarantor is not liable for more than what is due from the debtor, including interest and other agreed-upon damages, unless otherwise stipulated (Article 2054).

  2. Strict Construction:

    • A guaranty must be strictly construed against the creditor and in favor of the guarantor. Obligations not expressly included in the guaranty are not enforceable against the guarantor (Article 1378).

  3. Solidary Liability:

    • A guarantor is not presumed to be solidarily liable unless explicitly stated. If solidary liability is agreed upon, the contract is treated as suretyship (Article 2047).

Obligations of the Guarantor

  1. Right to Benefit of Excussion (Article 2058):

    • The guarantor can demand that the creditor exhaust the properties of the principal debtor before proceeding against the guarantor. However, this right is waived in the following cases:
      • The guarantor has expressly renounced excussion.
      • The guarantor is solidarily liable (surety).
      • The principal debtor cannot be sued within the Philippines.
      • The principal debtor has become insolvent.

  2. Right to Subrogation (Article 2067):

    • Upon payment, the guarantor is subrogated to the rights of the creditor, allowing him to recover from the principal debtor.

Special Cases and Rules

  1. Multiple Guarantors:

    • If several guarantors guarantee the same obligation, their liability is joint unless expressly stated as solidary (Article 2055).

  2. Extinguishment of Guaranty (Articles 2076–2084):

    • Guaranty is extinguished when:
      • The principal obligation is extinguished.
      • The creditor grants an extension to the debtor without the guarantor's consent.
      • The guarantor voluntarily pays the debt without informing the debtor and without demand from the creditor, prejudicing the latter’s rights.

Guaranty vs. Suretyship

  1. Nature:

    • Guaranty: Subsidiary obligation.
    • Suretyship: Primary and solidary liability with the debtor.

  2. Liability:

    • Guaranty: Liability arises only after excussion.
    • Suretyship: Liability arises immediately upon default.

  3. Consent of the Principal Debtor:

    • Guaranty: Generally, the debtor's consent is not necessary.
    • Suretyship: The surety typically requires consent from the debtor, though not always explicitly.

Conclusion

The provisions on guaranty and suretyship in Philippine law ensure clarity in credit transactions by defining the scope, nature, and limits of the guarantor's liability. The guarantor’s rights, such as excussion and subrogation, balance the interests of all parties. It is essential for creditors and guarantors to precisely stipulate the terms of the guaranty to avoid legal ambiguities or disputes.

Guaranty and Suretyship | CREDIT TRANSACTIONS

CIVIL LAW > VIII. CREDIT TRANSACTIONS > C. GUARANTY AND SURETYSHIP

Guaranty and suretyship are credit transactions under Philippine civil law that establish a relationship where one person binds themselves to answer for the debt, default, or miscarriage of another. These concepts are governed by Articles 2047 to 2084 of the Civil Code of the Philippines and applicable jurisprudence. Below is a meticulous discussion of the legal principles, distinctions, and applications of guaranty and suretyship:

I. DEFINITION AND NATURE

A. Guaranty

  • Article 2047: Guaranty is a contract where a person (guarantor) binds themselves to the creditor to fulfill the obligation of the principal debtor if the latter fails to do so.
  • Characteristics:
    • Accessory Contract: Cannot exist without a principal obligation.
    • Unilateral or Bilateral: Generally unilateral but can be bilateral if the guarantor is compensated.
    • Subsidiary Nature: The guarantor becomes liable only upon the default of the principal debtor.

B. Suretyship

  • Article 2047 (par. 2): If a person binds themselves solidarily with the principal debtor, it is called suretyship.
  • Characteristics:
    • Accessory Contract: Like guaranty, it is ancillary to a principal obligation.
    • Solidary Obligation: The surety directly assumes the obligation of the debtor, effectively becoming primarily liable.

II. ELEMENTS

  1. Principal Obligation: A valid and existing obligation between the principal debtor and creditor.
  2. Consent of the Guarantor or Surety: The guarantor/surety must expressly agree to undertake the obligation.
  3. Capacity: The guarantor/surety must have the capacity to enter into the contract.
  4. Cause or Consideration: For onerous guaranties, consideration is necessary. Gratuitous guaranties rely on liberality.

III. DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN GUARANTY AND SURETYSHIP

Aspect Guaranty Suretyship
Nature Subsidiary Solidary
Liability Contingent on the debtor's default Immediate and direct
Demand from Debtor Required before guarantor's liability Not required
Extent of Liability Limited to what is agreed in the contract Co-extensive with that of the principal debtor

IV. KINDS OF GUARANTY

  1. As to Formation:

    • Conventional: By agreement of the parties.
    • Legal: Imposed by law (e.g., guardians for minors).
    • Judicial: Ordered by a court.

  2. As to Consideration:

    • Gratuitous: No compensation.
    • Onerous: Guarantor is paid or compensated.

  3. As to Extent:

    • Simple Guaranty: Covers only the principal obligation.
    • Continuing Guaranty: Covers future obligations within the agreed limit.

V. OBLIGATIONS AND RIGHTS OF THE GUARANTOR

A. Obligations of the Guarantor

  1. To Pay upon Default of the Debtor: The guarantor must fulfill the obligation once the principal debtor defaults.
  2. To Pay Interest and Expenses: If agreed or stipulated, the guarantor is liable for interest and incidental expenses.

B. Rights of the Guarantor

  1. Right of Exoneration: Demand that the principal debtor fulfill the obligation when due.
  2. Right of Indemnity: Recover from the principal debtor what the guarantor paid on their behalf.
  3. Right of Subrogation: Step into the shoes of the creditor once the guaranty obligation is fulfilled.
  4. Benefit of Excussion (Article 2058): Demand that the creditor exhausts the properties of the debtor first before enforcing the guaranty (not applicable in suretyship).

VI. EXTINCTION OF GUARANTY

Guaranty is extinguished by:

  1. Extinction of the Principal Obligation: If the debt is paid or otherwise discharged.
  2. Release by the Creditor: Voluntary relinquishment by the creditor.
  3. Novation: Substitution of the obligation that effectively extinguishes the original guaranty.
  4. Prescription or Expiry: When the period to enforce the guaranty lapses.

VII. LEGAL EFFECTS AND APPLICATIONS

In Case of Fraud, Duress, or Misrepresentation:

  • If the creditor induces the guarantor through fraud, the guaranty contract is voidable.

Jurisprudential Doctrines:

  1. Rule of Strictissimi Juris: The guaranty is strictly interpreted and cannot be extended beyond its terms.
  2. Benefit of Excussion: Applies unless waived; the creditor must exhaust the debtor’s properties before going after the guarantor.

VIII. JURISPRUDENCE

Significant Supreme Court decisions clarify nuances:

  1. PNB v. CA (1996): Solidary surety is directly liable with the principal debtor and waives the benefit of excussion.
  2. Trade & Investment Dev. Corp. v. Roblett (2002): A continuing guaranty remains valid even for obligations unknown at the time of its execution, provided they fall within the agreed terms.
  3. Dizon v. Philippine National Bank (2008): The creditor must demand payment from the guarantor within a reasonable time after the debtor defaults.

IX. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

  • For Banks and Financial Institutions: Suretyship is often used to secure loans.
  • Corporate Setting: Corporate officers may act as sureties for corporate obligations.
  • Judicial Bonding: Courts often require guaranties or sureties for the issuance of injunctions or attachments.

This comprehensive outline provides a detailed understanding of guaranty and suretyship under Philippine law. Legal practitioners must always review relevant statutory provisions, contractual terms, and case law to provide accurate advice tailored to specific situations.

Extrajudicial | Kinds of Deposit | Deposit | CREDIT TRANSACTIONS

CIVIL LAW > VIII. CREDIT TRANSACTIONS > B. Deposit > 2. Kinds of Deposit > b. Extrajudicial Deposit

Definition and General Principles

An extrajudicial deposit is a contract whereby a person (the depositor) delivers a thing to another (the depositary) with the obligation of the latter to keep it and return it when demanded by the depositor. It is one of the two kinds of deposit under Philippine law, distinguished from a judicial deposit which arises in litigation or under compulsion of law.

Extrajudicial deposits are governed by Articles 1966 to 1995 of the Civil Code of the Philippines.

Characteristics

  1. Real Contract: The deposit is perfected upon the delivery of the thing to the depositary.
  2. Principal Contract: It exists independently and is not accessory to any other obligation.
  3. Unilateral or Bilateral:
    • Unilateral: When the obligation to return the thing rests solely on the depositary.
    • Bilateral: When both parties have reciprocal obligations, such as in a remunerated deposit.

Essential Elements

  1. Subject Matter: Movable or immovable property.
    • Primarily pertains to movable objects unless otherwise specified.
  2. Purpose: Safekeeping or custody of the property.
  3. Delivery: Actual or constructive delivery of the thing to the depositary.

Kinds of Extrajudicial Deposits

  1. Voluntary Deposit:

    • Made by the depositor’s own free will.
    • Governed by Articles 1966 to 1980 of the Civil Code.
    • Requisites:
      1. Capacity of the depositor: The depositor must have legal capacity to contract.
      2. Acceptance by the depositary: The depositary must consent to the deposit.

  2. Necessary Deposit:

    • Made due to some urgent or unavoidable circumstance.
    • Governed by Articles 1996 to 2004 of the Civil Code.
    • Examples:
      • Deposit during a fire, storm, or similar emergencies.
      • Deposit by travelers in inns, hotels, or lodging houses.
    • Requisites:
      1. The deposit arises from an urgent need.
      2. The depositary may not refuse acceptance if such refusal would cause damage to the depositor.
    • Innkeepers’ Liability:
      • Includes responsibility for the personal effects of guests.
      • Liability is presumed unless: a. Loss is due to force majeure. b. The depositor acted with negligence. c. The loss occurred due to the nature of the thing.

Obligations of the Depositary

  1. Principal Obligations:

    • Safekeeping: Exercise diligence in the care of the thing deposited (ordinary diligence unless otherwise agreed).
    • Return: Deliver the thing when demanded, even if a period has been stipulated unless the depositary has a right to retain it (e.g., for unpaid expenses).

  2. Accessory Obligations:

    • Non-use: The depositary must not use the thing without the depositor’s consent.
    • Return of accessories or increments: The depositary must return all fruits or accessories of the deposit unless otherwise agreed.

  3. Liabilities:

    • The depositary is liable for loss or deterioration unless:
      • It is due to a fortuitous event.
      • The depositor failed to disclose the dangerous character of the thing deposited.

Rights of the Depositary

  1. Retention: The depositary may retain the deposit until full payment of expenses incurred in preserving it.
  2. Reimbursement: The depositary has the right to reimbursement for necessary expenses.

Termination of the Deposit

  1. Demand for Return: The depositor may demand the return of the thing at any time unless a period has been fixed and the depositary has not committed a breach.
  2. Loss or Destruction: The contract is extinguished if the thing is lost or destroyed without fault of the depositary.
  3. Death: If the depositary dies, his heirs are bound to return the thing unless the contract stipulates otherwise.

Special Rules on Necessary Deposits

  1. Deposits with Innkeepers:

    • Guests are presumed to deposit their belongings with the innkeeper.
    • Innkeepers are liable for loss unless the loss arises from: a. Force majeure. b. Fault of the guest. c. Nature of the thing deposited.

  2. Deposits by Travelers:

    • Travelers may deposit valuables in the innkeeper’s safe or equivalent facility.
    • Failure to use such facilities may relieve the innkeeper of liability.

Special Cases

  1. Commodatum vs. Deposit:

    • Commodatum involves the loan for use; deposit entails safekeeping.
    • In deposit, ownership remains with the depositor.

  2. Bank Deposits:

    • Bank deposits are considered irregular deposits (Article 1980).
    • Ownership of the money passes to the bank, which is obligated to return the same amount.

  3. Irregular Deposits:

    • Occurs when the thing deposited is consumable (e.g., money).
    • The depositary becomes the owner but is obliged to return an equivalent amount or quality.

Relevant Jurisprudence

  1. Liability of Depositaries:
    • The depositary’s liability extends to ensuring due diligence is observed in safekeeping, as ruled in relevant Supreme Court decisions.
  2. Innkeeper Deposits:
    • Jurisprudence has clarified the extent of innkeepers' liability for losses within their premises.

This overview provides a meticulous explanation of extrajudicial deposits under Philippine Civil Law, focusing on their kinds, elements, obligations, and related nuances.

Judicial | Kinds of Deposit | Deposit | CREDIT TRANSACTIONS

CIVIL LAW > CREDIT TRANSACTIONS > DEPOSIT > JUDICIAL DEPOSIT

Definition of Judicial Deposit

A judicial deposit, also known as a sequestration, is a form of deposit that occurs when an object or property in litigation is placed in the custody of a third party (depositor or custodian) to ensure its preservation and eventual disposition according to a judicial decision. It is a specific form of deposit regulated by law to safeguard disputed property during the pendency of litigation.

Legal Basis

Judicial deposit is governed under the Civil Code of the Philippines, primarily in Articles 2005 to 2007 and in conjunction with the provisions on deposit in Articles 1962 to 2004.

Characteristics of Judicial Deposit

  1. Judicial in Nature
    Judicial deposits arise by virtue of a court order or through legal proceedings. They are not based on the voluntary agreement of the parties but are imposed by law to protect the interests of the litigants.

  2. Involves Disputed Property
    The property or object involved in a judicial deposit is typically the subject of litigation, and its custody is temporarily entrusted to ensure impartial handling and preservation.

  3. Depositary Appointed by Court
    The court designates the person or entity to act as the depositary or custodian of the property.

  4. Temporary Custody
    The purpose of judicial deposit is temporary, lasting only until the court renders a final judgment on the matter.

Requirements for Judicial Deposit

  1. Existence of a Legal Dispute
    Judicial deposit occurs only when there is a pending litigation concerning the ownership, possession, or custody of the property.

  2. Court Order
    The judicial deposit must be expressly ordered by the court. It cannot be established voluntarily between the parties in the absence of litigation.

  3. Appointed Depositary
    The court appoints a neutral third party, such as a public official, a bonded warehouse, or any person capable of preserving the property in dispute.

Obligations of the Depositary in Judicial Deposit

The depositary in a judicial deposit assumes the responsibilities outlined under the Civil Code for voluntary deposits, including:

  1. Safekeeping the Property
    The depositary must preserve the property and prevent its loss, destruction, or deterioration.

  2. Return of Property Upon Demand
    The property must be returned or delivered in accordance with the final court order or the law.

  3. Liability for Negligence or Fraud
    The depositary is responsible for any damage caused to the property due to negligence or fraud.

  4. No Right to Use the Property
    The depositary cannot use the property unless expressly authorized by the court or the nature of the deposit allows it.

Kinds of Judicial Deposit

Judicial deposit may take the form of:

  1. Movable Property
    Where the object deposited is tangible personal property, such as goods or documents in dispute.

  2. Immovable Property
    Where the subject of the deposit is real property, such as land or buildings. The court may appoint an administrator to manage the immovable property during the litigation.

Legal Effects of Judicial Deposit

  1. Preservation of Property
    Judicial deposit ensures the property remains intact and unaffected by any unilateral actions of the parties involved in the litigation.

  2. Neutral Custody
    The court-appointed depositary acts as a neutral party to hold and manage the property until the resolution of the case.

  3. Enforcement of Court Decisions
    Once a judgment is rendered, the depositary must comply with the court’s orders concerning the disposition of the property.

Judicial Deposit Distinguished from Other Deposits

Aspect Judicial Deposit Voluntary Deposit
Nature Mandated by court order Based on agreement between parties
Cause Legal dispute over property Voluntary safekeeping
Appointing Authority Court Mutual agreement
Depositary Rights Governed strictly by court directives Subject to terms agreed upon

Relevant Case Law

Philippine jurisprudence has reinforced the principles surrounding judicial deposits:

  1. Neutral Custody Requirement: Courts emphasize that the primary purpose of judicial deposit is to maintain the neutrality and preservation of the disputed property.
  2. Depositary Liability: The courts have consistently held depositaries liable for damages resulting from their negligence or failure to adhere to court orders.
  3. Court Jurisdiction: Only the court handling the case has the authority to order a judicial deposit.

Key Provisions of the Civil Code

  1. Article 2005: Defines sequestration and its relation to judicial deposit.
  2. Article 2006: Enumerates the obligations of a sequestrator.
  3. Article 2007: Stipulates the procedure for turning over the property to the appropriate party after judgment.

By understanding these elements, practitioners can navigate issues involving judicial deposits with precision, ensuring compliance with legal standards and the effective resolution of disputes.

Kinds of Deposit | Deposit | CREDIT TRANSACTIONS

CIVIL LAW: CREDIT TRANSACTIONS > DEPOSIT > KINDS OF DEPOSIT

Under Philippine Civil Law, deposit is a type of contract regulated under Title XII, Chapter 1 of the Civil Code of the Philippines (Articles 1962–2009). In essence, a deposit is a contract wherein a person (the depositor) delivers a thing to another (the depositary) for safekeeping under the obligation of returning it upon demand. Deposits are classified based on their nature, purpose, and creation.

1. Kinds of Deposit

Deposits are broadly classified into voluntary deposit and necessary deposit, with further subdivisions under each.

A. Voluntary Deposit

A voluntary deposit is one wherein the delivery of the thing is made by the free will of the depositor. This type of deposit requires the consent of both parties.

  1. Characteristics:

    • Mutual Consent: Both the depositor and depositary agree to the safekeeping arrangement.
    • Purpose: To secure the safekeeping of the deposited object.

  2. Rules Governing Voluntary Deposits:

    • Subject Matter: Can involve movable or immovable property, though traditionally, movable objects are more common.
    • Obligations of the Depositary:
      • Must return the exact thing deposited upon demand, unless otherwise agreed (Article 1972).
      • Cannot use the thing deposited without express permission; otherwise, it constitutes commodatum or usufruct (Article 1977).
      • Responsible for the safekeeping and preservation of the item in the condition in which it was received.
    • Termination: May be terminated at any time at the request of the depositor.

  3. Examples:

    • Depositing cash with a bank for safekeeping.
    • Leaving personal items in the care of a friend.

B. Necessary Deposit

A necessary deposit arises from particular circumstances where the depositor is compelled to deliver a thing to another due to some urgent need.

  1. Characteristics:

    • No Voluntariness: Necessitated by circumstances such as calamity, misfortune, or legal obligations.
    • Compulsion: The depositor has little to no choice but to entrust their property to the depositary.

  2. Instances of Necessary Deposit:

    • By Force of Circumstances:
      • In case of fire, flood, typhoon, or other calamities.
    • By Law:
      • Example: A hotelkeeper is legally obligated to accept deposits from guests (Article 1998).

  3. Special Rules:

    • Hotelkeepers:
      • Obliged to accept deposits from guests unless dangerous items (Article 1998).
      • Liable for loss or damage unless caused by force majeure, the depositor’s negligence, or inherent defects of the item (Article 2000).
    • Finder of Lost Goods:
      • Obliged to deposit the found item with the owner or with the authorities (Article 1996).

  4. Obligations of the Depositary:

    • Must use the same diligence as a good father of a family (ordinary diligence) in safeguarding the deposit (Article 1973).
    • Liable for loss due to negligence or fault.

C. Judicial Deposit (Sequestration)

A judicial deposit arises when a court orders the safekeeping of property during litigation to ensure its preservation until a resolution is reached.

  1. Purpose:

    • To protect the subject matter of litigation.
    • To preserve the rights of all parties involved.

  2. Key Rules:

    • Governed by procedural law and specific court orders.
    • The custodian acts under strict court supervision.

D. Gratuitous vs. Compensated Deposit

Deposits can also be classified based on whether compensation is involved.

  1. Gratuitous Deposit:

    • The depositary does not receive any compensation for safekeeping.
    • Standard of care required is that of a good father of a family (Article 1973).

  2. Compensated Deposit:

    • The depositary is paid for their service, in which case greater diligence is required in safekeeping the item (extraordinary diligence).

E. Deposit with Banks

A distinct form of deposit regulated separately due to its commercial nature.

  1. Deposit of Money (Bank Deposits):
    • Bank deposits are not governed by the rules of deposit under the Civil Code but by special laws and banking regulations.
    • A bank deposit constitutes a simple loan, where ownership of the money passes to the bank, obligating the bank to return an equivalent amount upon demand (Article 1980).

F. Key Distinctions Between Kinds of Deposits

Aspect Voluntary Deposit Necessary Deposit
Creation By mutual consent of depositor and depositary. Compelled by circumstances or law.
Voluntariness Voluntary. Involuntary.
Cause Safekeeping by free will. Urgency or legal obligation.
Diligence Required Ordinary diligence (good father of a family). Ordinary diligence, except in compensated deposits where extraordinary diligence applies.

Summary of Obligations of the Depositary

  1. Safekeeping: Preserve the object in its original condition.
  2. Return: Deliver the same object upon demand or at the end of the agreed period.
  3. Prohibition Against Use: Cannot use the object without permission.
  4. Liability: Liable for loss or damage unless caused by force majeure or faults of the depositor.

By understanding these distinctions and rules, parties can properly navigate the legal nuances of deposit transactions under Philippine Civil Law.

Definition | Deposit | CREDIT TRANSACTIONS

CIVIL LAW > VIII. CREDIT TRANSACTIONS > B. Deposit > 1. Definition

I. Legal Definition

Under Philippine law, specifically Articles 1962 to 2009 of the Civil Code of the Philippines, deposit is a contract whereby a person (the depositor) delivers a thing to another (the depositary) for safekeeping, under the obligation of the latter to return the thing upon demand or at the expiration of the agreed term.

II. Types of Deposit

The law recognizes two types of deposits:

  1. Judicial Deposit (Sequestration) - Deposit made in compliance with a court order or judicial proceeding.

    • Governed by Articles 2005-2009 of the Civil Code.
    • Example: Deposit of disputed goods during litigation.

  2. Extrajudicial Deposit

    • Voluntary Deposit (Article 1968): Constituted by the will of the parties; the depositor freely delivers the thing to the depositary.
    • Necessary Deposit (Article 1996): Arises due to unforeseen events, such as calamities or urgent situations, where a person is compelled to deposit something in order to save it from harm.

III. Characteristics of Deposit

  1. Principal Purpose: Safekeeping of the thing.
  2. Nature of the Contract: Essentially a real contract perfected upon delivery of the thing, unless it is an irregular deposit (e.g., involving money), where it becomes a consensual contract.
  3. Fiduciary Relationship: Based on trust and confidence between the depositor and the depositary.

IV. Essential Requisites

  1. Delivery of the Thing:

    • The depositor must place the thing in the possession of the depositary.
    • Can be actual or constructive.

  2. Purpose of Safekeeping:

    • The thing is delivered for the primary purpose of being safeguarded and returned.

  3. Return of the Thing:

    • The depositary is obligated to return the same thing delivered, except in specific instances involving irregular deposits (e.g., money that is commingled and considered fungible).

V. Duties and Obligations

  1. Obligations of the Depositary:

    • To safely keep the thing and exercise diligence as required by the nature of the thing (Article 1972).
    • To return the thing upon demand or upon the expiration of the agreed term.
    • Not to use the thing without the depositor’s permission (Article 1977), except:
      • When authorized by the depositor.
      • In cases of preservation where use is necessary.
    • To be liable for losses or damages caused by negligence or unauthorized use.

  2. Obligations of the Depositor:

    • To reimburse the depositary for expenses incurred in preserving the thing (Article 1978).
    • To indemnify the depositary for losses suffered due to the deposit, unless such losses are due to the depositary's fault.

VI. Subject Matter

  1. Things that can be Deposited:

    • Movable property: Always subject to deposit.
    • Immovable property: Subject to judicial sequestration only.

  2. Deposits of Fungible or Consumable Goods:

    • When the deposit involves fungible goods (e.g., money), it is called an irregular deposit (Article 1980). The depositary can use the goods but is obligated to return an equivalent of the same quantity and quality.

VII. Termination of the Deposit

  1. By Demand for Return:

    • The depositor may demand the return of the thing at any time unless a specific term was agreed upon (Article 1988).

  2. By Fulfillment of Purpose or Term:

    • The deposit ends when the agreed term expires or the purpose for which the deposit was made is achieved.

  3. By Loss or Destruction of the Thing:

    • If the thing deposited is lost or destroyed without the fault of the depositary, the deposit is extinguished.

  4. By Agreement of the Parties:

    • Parties may mutually agree to terminate the deposit at any time.

VIII. Judicial and Necessary Deposits

  1. Judicial Deposits:

    • May involve things seized in judicial proceedings.
    • Governed by court orders and procedural rules.

  2. Necessary Deposits:

    • Arise due to emergencies like fire, theft, or natural calamities (Article 1996).
    • Involve implied consent due to the urgency of the situation.

IX. Irregular Deposit (Article 1980)

  1. Definition:

    • Deposit involving fungible goods like money, where the depositary is allowed to make use of the goods but must return an equivalent amount or quality.

  2. Nature:

    • Treated as a loan for legal purposes, but the primary intent remains safekeeping.

  3. Implications:

    • Depositary becomes a debtor rather than a mere custodian.

X. Special Rules and Applications

  1. Compensation (Article 1991):

    • The depositary may retain the thing until reimbursement of necessary expenses incurred in its preservation.

  2. Multiple Depositors (Article 1987):

    • If the same thing is deposited by different people, the depositary must retain the thing until their claims are settled, unless one presents a valid title.

  3. Deposits by Minors or Incapacitated Persons (Article 1992):

    • The depositary may only return the thing to the guardian or legal representative, except when the minor has independently managed their own property.

  4. Secrecy of Deposit:

    • Deposit contracts often involve confidentiality unless disclosure is required by law or public policy.

XI. Remedies

  1. For Depositor:

    • Demand return of the thing.
    • Sue for damages in case of negligence or unauthorized use by the depositary.

  2. For Depositary:

    • Claim reimbursement for necessary expenses.
    • Exercise retention rights over the deposited thing if unpaid.

This comprehensive understanding of the Civil Law provision on Deposit ensures that the principles, obligations, and remedies related to this credit transaction are adhered to in the Philippines.

Deposit | CREDIT TRANSACTIONS

CIVIL LAW: CREDIT TRANSACTIONS

B. Deposit

Under Philippine law, Deposit is a credit transaction governed by the provisions of the Civil Code (Articles 1962-2009). It involves the delivery of a thing by one party (the depositor) to another (the depositary) with the obligation of the latter to return the same upon demand or upon the fulfillment of the purpose of the deposit.

I. NATURE AND DEFINITION

  1. Deposit Defined (Article 1962):
    Deposit is a contract whereby a person (depositor) delivers a thing to another (depositary) for safekeeping, under the obligation of the latter to return it when requested or after a specified period.

  2. Kinds of Deposit:
    a. Judicial Deposit (Sequestration):

    • Ordered by a court in a case where property is subject to litigation.
    • Governed by the rules of court.
    • Articles 2005-2009 of the Civil Code provide limited guidance.

    b. Extrajudicial Deposit:

    • Voluntarily constituted by agreement between parties.
    • Divided into: i. Voluntary Deposit (Article 1966): Arises from the agreement of the depositor and depositary.
      ii. Necessary Deposit (Article 1996): Constituted by law or due to urgent circumstances.

II. ELEMENTS OF A DEPOSIT

  1. Delivery: The actual physical transfer of possession of the object to the depositary.
  2. Purpose: Safekeeping of the thing, not its use.
  3. Obligation to Return: The depositary must return the same object upon demand or upon fulfillment of the deposit's purpose.

III. RULES GOVERNING EXTRAJUDICIAL DEPOSIT

A. Voluntary Deposit (Articles 1966-1995)

  1. Parties:

    • Depositor: Must have capacity to contract.
    • Depositary: Can be any person capable of holding possession.

  2. Obligations of the Depositary:
    a. Safeguard the thing with due diligence (Article 1972).
    b. Not use the thing without the depositor's consent (Article 1977).
    c. Return the identical thing upon demand, with accessories or fruits (Article 1983).

  3. Rights of the Depositary:
    a. Retain the deposit for expenses or losses incurred (Article 1994).
    b. Compensation for extraordinary expenses (Article 1973).

  4. Loss of Thing Deposited:
    a. Depositary is not liable if the loss is due to fortuitous events unless:

    • He expressly assumed responsibility (Article 1979).
    • The thing is delivered sealed or closed, and the seal is broken (Article 1981).

B. Necessary Deposit (Articles 1996-2004)

  1. Concept:
    A deposit made:

    • In compliance with a legal obligation.
    • On account of an emergency (e.g., fire, earthquake).

  2. Rules for Hotelkeepers (Articles 1998-2004):

    • Hotelkeepers are liable for loss of personal property of guests, unless: a. Due to force majeure.
      b. The guest's negligence contributed to the loss (Article 2000).
    • Exclusion of liability is not allowed through stipulation (Article 2003).
    • Hotelkeeper's liability extends to loss caused by employees or other guests (Article 2001).

  3. Compensation for the Depositary:

    • Necessary deposit allows for reasonable compensation for the depositary's efforts and expenses.

IV. JUDICIAL DEPOSIT (SEQUESTRATION) (Articles 2005-2009)

  1. Concept:

    • Constituted by virtue of a court order to preserve property in litigation.
    • Custody is placed with a designated depositary (often a third party).

  2. Characteristics:

    • Involves property subject to conflicting claims or pending litigation.
    • Custodian must act according to the court's instructions.

  3. Obligations of the Judicial Depositary:

    • To comply strictly with court orders.
    • To return the thing upon resolution of the case.

V. SPECIAL RULES AND NOTES

  1. Objects of Deposit (Article 1966):

    • Deposit may involve movable or immovable property, though the rules generally apply to movables.

  2. Depositor's Ownership Not Required:

    • A depositor does not need to be the owner of the thing deposited, provided they have the right to deliver it.

  3. Breach of Deposit Contract:

    • Failure to return the thing upon demand may give rise to liability for damages and possibly criminal liability under Estafa (Article 315, Revised Penal Code).

VI. TERMINATION OF DEPOSIT

  1. Fulfillment of the purpose or expiration of the term.
  2. Demand by the depositor for the return of the object.
  3. Mutual agreement between the parties.
  4. Fortuitous loss or destruction of the object.

By understanding these provisions, parties can navigate the nuances of deposit agreements and safeguard their interests under Philippine law.

Mutuum | Kinds of Loans | Loans | CREDIT TRANSACTIONS

CIVIL LAW: CREDIT TRANSACTIONS – MUTUUM

Definition and Nature

Mutuum is a contract of loan whereby one of the parties, referred to as the lender or creditor, delivers to another, referred to as the borrower or debtor, consumable goods or money, with the condition that the borrower shall repay the lender an equivalent amount of the same kind and quality. It is governed by the Civil Code of the Philippines, particularly under Title XI, Chapter 1.

  • Essential Characteristics:
    1. Real Contract – Mutuum is perfected by the delivery of the object (consumable goods or money). Mere agreement without delivery does not create a binding obligation.
    2. Unilateral Contract – Once perfected, it creates an obligation only on the part of the borrower to return what was borrowed.
    3. Gratuitous or Onerous – It can be gratuitous (no interest is charged) or onerous (interest is charged).

Distinction from Commodatum

It is essential to distinguish mutuum from commodatum, as they are both types of loans:

  1. Object:

    • Mutuum involves consumable goods (money, rice, oil, etc.) that cannot be used without being consumed.
    • Commodatum involves non-consumable goods (vehicles, books, etc.) where the borrower returns the exact same item.

  2. Ownership:

    • In mutuum, ownership of the goods passes to the borrower upon delivery, giving them the right to dispose of the goods as they see fit.
    • In commodatum, ownership remains with the lender.

  3. Purpose:

    • Mutuum is for consumption.
    • Commodatum is for use and return.

Requisites of Mutuum

  1. Delivery of Consumable Goods or Money:

    • The lender must physically or constructively deliver the object of the loan.
    • Without delivery, the contract is not perfected.

  2. Obligation to Return the Equivalent:

    • The borrower must return the same amount and kind of goods or money loaned, with no requirement to return the specific items delivered.

  3. Agreement on Terms:

    • The parties must agree on the essential terms, particularly whether the loan is gratuitous or bears interest.

Rules on Interest

The imposition of interest on a loan is strictly regulated to prevent usury:

  1. Stipulation Required:

    • Interest is not presumed; it must be expressly stipulated in writing under Article 1956 of the Civil Code.
    • Oral agreements regarding interest are void.

  2. Rate of Interest:

    • The agreed rate must comply with the Usury Law as amended by Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas (BSP) circulars.
    • In the absence of agreement, no interest may be charged.

  3. Penalties for Excessive Interest:

    • Agreements charging usurious interest rates are void as to the interest, although the principal obligation remains enforceable.

Obligations of the Borrower

  1. Return the Equivalent:

    • The borrower must return the equivalent amount and quality of the consumable goods or money loaned, as agreed.
    • If repayment involves money, the legal tender of the Philippines must be used unless otherwise stipulated.

  2. Payment of Interest (if agreed):

    • If there is a stipulation for interest, it must be paid at the agreed rate.

  3. Timely Compliance:

    • Repayment must be made at the time and place agreed upon. In the absence of an agreement, the rules on obligations and payment under Articles 1244 to 1251 of the Civil Code apply.

Extinguishment of Mutuum

  1. Fulfillment of Obligation:

    • When the borrower returns the equivalent amount and quality of the goods or money.

  2. Novation:

    • When the original contract is replaced by a new contract.

  3. Compensation:

    • When the borrower and lender become each other’s creditors and the debts are set off against one another.

  4. Loss of Object:

    • If the object of the loan is lost before delivery or when the obligation to return becomes impossible, the contract may be extinguished.

  5. Prescription:

    • The right to enforce repayment of a loan may prescribe under the rules of Article 1149 (10 years for written contracts) or Article 1150 (6 years for oral contracts).

Case Law and Applications

  1. Loan vs. Donation:

    • In Lopez vs. Court of Appeals (1995), the Supreme Court emphasized that loans (mutuum) involve the obligation to return the equivalent, while donations lack this obligation.

  2. Interest Without Stipulation:

    • In Sps. Go vs. The Philippine National Bank (2016), it was reiterated that in the absence of a written stipulation, no interest can be demanded from the borrower.

  3. Forbearance and Delay:

    • If a borrower fails to repay on time, the lender may collect legal interest for delay as provided under Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas Circular No. 799, setting the rate at 6% per annum unless otherwise agreed.

Practical Considerations

  1. Documentation:

    • It is advisable to execute a written agreement for clarity, especially when interest is charged.
    • Proper acknowledgment of receipt by the borrower safeguards the lender's rights.

  2. Legal Recourse:

    • In case of non-repayment, the lender may file a collection suit in court.

  3. Tax Implications:

    • Interest income derived from loans may be subject to income tax under the Tax Code.

This comprehensive understanding of mutuum provides a robust framework for navigating issues in civil credit transactions, ensuring legal compliance and safeguarding the rights of parties involved.

Commodatum | Kinds of Loans | Loans | CREDIT TRANSACTIONS

CIVIL LAW > CREDIT TRANSACTIONS > LOANS > COMMODATUM

Commodatum is a type of gratuitous loan governed by Articles 1933 to 1952 of the Civil Code of the Philippines. It involves the delivery of a non-consumable thing by the owner (the lender or commodant) to another person (the borrower or commodatary) for the latter's use and for free, with the obligation to return the exact same thing after use.

Below is a meticulous discussion of the essential elements, characteristics, types, obligations of the parties, and other critical provisions related to commodatum:

1. ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS

  1. Delivery of the Thing

    • The lender delivers the thing to the borrower.
    • Ownership of the thing remains with the lender.

  2. Non-consumable Thing

    • The thing lent is not intended to be consumed through use. (e.g., tools, vehicles, or books).
    • If consumable goods are lent but intended to be used for exhibition or display, it can still constitute commodatum.

  3. Gratuitousness

    • Commodatum is always without compensation or consideration. If compensation is involved, it becomes another type of contract, such as a lease.

  4. Obligation to Return

    • The exact same thing must be returned, not a similar or equivalent object.

2. CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMODATUM

  1. Real Contract

    • It is perfected upon the delivery of the thing. Mere agreement without delivery does not create the contract.

  2. Unilateral or Bilateral

    • It is primarily unilateral, as only the borrower typically has obligations (to preserve and return the thing).
    • It may become bilateral when the lender assumes specific obligations (e.g., to reimburse necessary expenses).

  3. Nominate Contract

    • It is specifically provided for and regulated under the Civil Code.

  4. Gratuitous

    • The lender receives no compensation for lending the thing.

3. KINDS OF COMMODATUM

  1. Ordinary Commodatum

    • The thing is lent for the borrower's use for a specified time or purpose.

  2. Precarium (Precarious Commodatum)

    • The lender may demand the return of the thing at will.
    • It arises when:
      • The borrower is allowed to use the thing by mere tolerance of the lender, or
      • No specific period or purpose is stated in the contract.

4. OBLIGATIONS OF THE PARTIES

A. Obligations of the Commodatary (Borrower):

  1. To Preserve the Thing

    • The borrower must exercise extraordinary diligence in the use and preservation of the thing (Art. 1941).

  2. To Use the Thing According to its Purpose

    • The thing must be used only for the purpose stipulated or customary for its nature (Art. 1942).
    • Misuse or use beyond the agreed purpose may lead to liability or termination of the contract.

  3. To Return the Thing

    • The exact same thing must be returned upon the expiration of the period or accomplishment of the purpose (Art. 1946).

  4. Liability for Loss or Damage

    • The borrower is generally liable for the loss or deterioration of the thing if:
      • The loss is due to the borrower’s fault or negligence.
      • The borrower delays returning the thing.
      • The thing is used for purposes other than agreed or customary.
      • The borrower lends the thing to a third person without the lender’s consent (Art. 1942 and Art. 1949).

  5. Reimbursement of Necessary Expenses

    • The borrower must reimburse the lender for extraordinary expenses incurred for the preservation of the thing (Art. 1949).

B. Obligations of the Commodant (Lender):

  1. To Allow Use of the Thing

    • The lender must allow the borrower to use the thing for the agreed purpose or period.

  2. To Reimburse Extraordinary Expenses

    • The lender is obligated to reimburse extraordinary expenses necessary for the preservation of the thing if incurred by the borrower (Art. 1949).

  3. Liability for Defects

    • The lender is liable for damages arising from hidden defects in the thing which the lender knew or should have known but failed to disclose (Art. 1951).

5. RIGHTS OF THE PARTIES

A. Rights of the Commodant (Lender):

  1. To Demand Return

    • The lender may demand the return of the thing upon:
      • The expiration of the period.
      • Accomplishment of the purpose.
      • Breach by the borrower.

  2. To Recover Damages

    • The lender may recover damages for any unauthorized use or deterioration due to the borrower’s fault.

  3. To Demand Immediate Return (Precarium)

    • In precarious commodatum, the lender may demand the return of the thing at will.

B. Rights of the Commodatary (Borrower):

  1. Right to Use

    • The borrower has the right to use the thing in accordance with the terms of the contract.

  2. Right to Reimbursement

    • The borrower may demand reimbursement for extraordinary expenses incurred to preserve the thing.

6. SPECIAL RULES

  1. Loss of the Thing

    • The borrower is not liable for loss if:
      • The thing perishes due to fortuitous events, unless:
        • The borrower is in default.
        • The thing was used for unauthorized purposes.
        • The thing was lent to a third party without the lender’s consent.

  2. Subleasing or Lending

    • The borrower cannot lend or sublease the thing to a third person without the lender’s consent. Violation makes the borrower liable for loss or deterioration (Art. 1942).

  3. Termination of Commodatum

    • The contract terminates upon:
      • Expiration of the period.
      • Accomplishment of the purpose.
      • Demand for return in precarious commodatum.

7. DIFFERENCES FROM MUTUUM (SIMPLE LOAN)

Aspect Commodatum Mutuum
Object Non-consumable things Consumable things (e.g., money, grains)
Ownership Ownership remains with the lender Ownership is transferred to the borrower
Return Exact thing must be returned Equivalent value must be returned
Compensation Always gratuitous May be gratuitous or onerous (with interest)

By understanding these principles, you can properly evaluate and apply the rules on commodatum under Philippine law.

Kinds of Loans | Loans | CREDIT TRANSACTIONS

CIVIL LAW: CREDIT TRANSACTIONS > LOANS > KINDS OF LOANS

Under Philippine law, particularly under the Civil Code of the Philippines, a loan is a contract where one party (the lender) delivers to another (the borrower) either a sum of money or other consumable thing with the agreement that the borrower will return an equivalent amount or kind (Article 1933). Loans are broadly categorized into commodatum and mutuum, which are further differentiated based on their subject matter, nature, and purpose.

I. COMMODATUM

Commodatum is a gratuitous contract wherein the lender delivers a non-consumable thing to the borrower (called the bailee) for the borrower’s temporary use, and the borrower is obliged to return the same thing after use.

A. Characteristics of Commodatum:

  1. Gratuitous:
    • Commodatum is essentially without compensation. If the contract involves compensation, it is not a commodatum but another contract (e.g., lease).
  2. Non-consumable Things:
    • The subject matter of commodatum is a non-consumable thing, which means it cannot be used up or consumed through its normal use (e.g., tools, furniture, vehicles).
  3. Transfer of Use:
    • Only the use of the object is transferred, not its ownership.
  4. Return of the Same Thing:
    • The exact same object loaned must be returned to the lender after the agreed period or purpose.

B. Types of Commodatum:

  1. Ordinary Commodatum:
    • The thing is loaned for the borrower’s general use and is returned after the expiration of the term or upon demand.
  2. Precarium:
    • The lender may demand the return of the thing at will. This applies when no specific term or purpose is agreed upon, or when the purpose has been fulfilled.

C. Obligations of the Bailee (Borrower):

  1. Use the thing only for the purpose stipulated and with due diligence (Articles 1939–1940).
  2. Return the thing upon the expiration of the term or fulfillment of the purpose (Article 1941).
  3. Be liable for loss or deterioration caused by negligence or unauthorized use (Articles 1942–1943).

D. Obligations of the Bailor (Lender):

  1. Allow the borrower to use the thing for the agreed purpose or term.
  2. Reimburse the borrower for necessary expenses incurred for the preservation of the thing (Article 1948).

II. MUTUUM

Mutuum is a contract of simple loan where the lender delivers to the borrower money or other consumable things, and the borrower is obligated to return an equivalent amount of the same kind and quality.

A. Characteristics of Mutuum:

  1. Real Contract:
    • Mutuum is perfected upon the delivery of the thing loaned.
  2. Consumable Things:
    • The subject matter is typically consumable things such as money, grain, oil, or other items that are exhausted upon use.
  3. Ownership Transfers:
    • Ownership of the consumable thing passes to the borrower, who may use it as they see fit.
  4. Obligation to Return:
    • The borrower must return the equivalent of the thing loaned, not the exact same thing.

B. Kinds of Mutuum:

  1. Ordinary Mutuum:
    • The borrower is obligated to return the equivalent of the thing loaned at the agreed time or upon demand.
  2. Mutuum with Interest:
    • The borrower pays interest in addition to returning the principal amount. Interest must be expressly stipulated in writing (Article 1956); otherwise, the loan is presumed interest-free.

C. Interest Rules (Mutuum with Interest):

  1. Conventional Interest:
    • Must be agreed upon in writing; otherwise, the loan bears no interest (Article 1956).
  2. Usury:
    • Although the Usury Law has been rendered ineffective by Central Bank Circular No. 905 (1982), the court retains discretion to reduce iniquitous or unconscionable interest rates (Article 1229).
  3. Legal Interest:
    • In the absence of an agreement, interest may only be charged as legal interest under applicable laws (e.g., 6% per annum under Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas guidelines for monetary obligations).

III. DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN COMMODATUM AND MUTUUM

Aspect Commodatum Mutuum
Subject Matter Non-consumable things Consumable things
Nature Gratuitous May be gratuitous or onerous (with interest)
Ownership Transfer Ownership remains with lender Ownership is transferred to borrower
Obligation to Return Exact same thing must be returned Equivalent of the thing must be returned
Perfection By mere consent Upon delivery of the thing loaned

IV. SPECIAL RULES ON LOANS

  1. Requisites of Loans:

    • Consent of the parties.
    • Delivery of the thing loaned (real contract for mutuum; commodatum perfected by consent).
    • Borrower’s obligation to return the same (commodatum) or equivalent (mutuum).

  2. Liability for Loss or Damage:

    • In commodatum, the borrower is liable for loss even due to fortuitous events if:
      • The borrower delayed in returning the thing.
      • The borrower used the thing for unauthorized purposes.
      • The thing loaned was delivered with undertaking of safekeeping (Article 1942).
    • In mutuum, the borrower is not liable for loss of the thing loaned due to fortuitous events, as ownership has already passed.

  3. Nullity of Loan Agreements:

    • Loans with an unconscionable or illegal interest rate may be declared null and void as to the interest component, while the principal remains demandable.

  4. Stipulations in Writing:

    • To charge interest, the agreement must be written, otherwise the court presumes a zero-interest loan (Article 1956).

This summary provides a meticulous breakdown of the kinds of loans under Philippine Civil Law, focusing on the rules governing commodatum and mutuum, their distinctions, and specific obligations.

Definition | Loans | CREDIT TRANSACTIONS

CIVIL LAW

VIII. CREDIT TRANSACTIONS
A. LOANS
1. Definition

A. Definition of Loan

Under Philippine law, a loan is a contract whereby one party, called the lender, delivers to another party, the borrower, either money or other consumable things, upon the condition that the latter shall pay an equivalent amount of money or return things of the same kind and quality at a future time. Loans are governed primarily by the Civil Code of the Philippines, particularly Articles 1933 to 1961, under the chapter on Credit Transactions.

B. Characteristics of a Loan

  1. Principal Obligation:

    • The borrower's obligation is to return the equivalent of what was received, whether in money or in kind.
    • If the loan involves money, the borrower is required to pay the sum borrowed along with any stipulated interest.

  2. Bilateral Contract:

    • It is unilateral once the lender delivers the loan, as it creates an obligation only for the borrower to return the equivalent in money or goods.

  3. Nominate Contract:

    • The contract is specifically provided for under the Civil Code.

  4. Gratuitous or Onerous:

    • Gratuitous Loan: If no interest is stipulated, the loan is considered mutuum.
    • Onerous Loan: If interest is agreed upon, the loan becomes an interest-bearing mutuum.

  5. Real Contract:

    • A loan is perfected only upon the delivery of the object of the loan (i.e., money or other consumable goods). This is distinct from a consensual contract, which is perfected upon mere agreement.

C. Kinds of Loans

  1. Mutuum (Simple Loan):

    • Definition: A contract where the lender delivers money or other consumable things, and the borrower is obliged to repay with the same kind, quality, and quantity.
    • Gratuitous by Default: Interest is not presumed and must be expressly stipulated.
    • Obligation of the Borrower:
      • Return the equivalent in kind and quality, or the amount of money borrowed.
    • Examples:
      • Lending cash.
      • Lending agricultural products, such as rice or corn.

  2. Commodatum (Loan for Use):

    • Definition: A gratuitous contract where one party delivers a non-consumable thing to another for use, with the obligation to return the same thing.
    • Purpose: Unlike mutuum, where the borrower may consume the object, in commodatum the specific item itself must be returned.
    • Distinguishing Feature:
      • No transfer of ownership occurs in commodatum.

D. Essential Elements

  1. Consent:

    • Both parties must consent to the terms of the loan.
    • Consent must be free, mutual, and voluntary.

  2. Object:

    • The object of the loan must either be money or consumable goods.
    • For commodatum, the object must be non-consumable.

  3. Cause:

    • The cause is either gratuitous (no interest) or onerous (interest-bearing).

E. Stipulation of Interest

  1. Legal Interest Rate:

    • The BSP (Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas) sets the legal interest rate in the Philippines.
    • As of the latest guidelines, the legal interest for loans is 6% per annum, unless otherwise stipulated.

  2. Usury Law:

    • The Usury Law was effectively repealed by the New Central Bank Act (R.A. 7653), allowing parties to agree freely on interest rates, provided it does not contravene public policy or laws.

  3. Requisites for Valid Interest:

    • Must be expressly stipulated in writing.
    • If not stipulated, the loan is considered gratuitous.

F. Obligations of the Borrower

  1. Return of Object:

    • For mutuum: Return the equivalent in money or goods.
    • For commodatum: Return the specific item lent.

  2. Payment of Interest:

    • If interest is stipulated, it must be paid as agreed.

  3. Liability for Loss:

    • For mutuum: The borrower bears the risk of loss once the object is delivered.
    • For commodatum: Liability for loss depends on negligence or breach of terms.

G. Special Provisions on Loans

  1. Loan of Money (Article 1956):

    • No interest shall be due unless expressly stipulated in writing.
    • Any verbal agreement to pay interest is unenforceable.

  2. Loan of Consumable Goods:

    • The borrower must return the same kind and quality of goods.
    • If returning goods becomes impossible (e.g., market unavailability), equivalent cash value may be returned.

H. Legal Remedies for Breach

  1. Demand for Payment:

    • The lender can demand payment of the principal amount and stipulated interest (if any).

  2. Imposition of Penalties:

    • Penalty clauses may be enforced if agreed upon by the parties.

  3. Judicial Action:

    • The lender can file a suit to recover unpaid loans or enforce penalties.

  4. Reimbursement for Expenses:

    • The lender may recover expenses incurred in enforcing the loan agreement, if stipulated or allowed by law.

I. Extinguishment of Loans

  1. Payment or Performance:

    • Fulfillment of the borrower's obligation extinguishes the loan.

  2. Compensation:

    • Mutual debts between the lender and borrower may offset each other.

  3. Condonation or Remission:

    • The lender may forgive the loan, provided it is done expressly and in writing.

  4. Novation:

    • Substitution of the original obligation with a new one agreed upon by the parties.

  5. Loss of the Object (Commodatum):

    • For commodatum, the obligation is extinguished if the object lent is lost due to fortuitous events, provided there is no fault on the part of the borrower.

This detailed exposition on Loans under the Civil Code of the Philippines captures all essential principles, obligations, remedies, and classifications. For specific cases or questions, professional legal advice should be sought.

Loans | CREDIT TRANSACTIONS

CIVIL LAW

VIII. CREDIT TRANSACTIONS

A. LOANS

I. DEFINITION OF LOAN
A loan is a contract wherein one party (the lender) delivers to another party (the borrower) money or fungible goods with the obligation of the latter to return an equivalent sum of money or goods of the same kind and quality.

Relevant Articles:

  • Article 1933, Civil Code of the Philippines: Defines a loan (mutuum) and its essential characteristics.
  • Article 1953, Civil Code: Outlines that interest must be expressly stipulated.

II. CLASSIFICATIONS OF LOANS

  1. By Nature of the Object
    a. Simple Loan (Mutuum):

    • Involves the delivery of money or fungible goods.
    • The borrower is obligated to return the same kind or equivalent value.

    b. Commodatum:

    • Involves the delivery of non-fungible goods for temporary use.
    • Ownership remains with the lender.

  2. By Presence of Interest
    a. Gratuitous Loan: No interest is charged.
    b. Onerous Loan: Interest is stipulated and must be paid by the borrower.

  3. By Purpose
    a. Consumer Loans: For personal, family, or household purposes.
    b. Commercial Loans: For business or trade purposes.

III. ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF LOAN

  1. Consent:

    • Mutual agreement of the parties.
    • Can be oral or written.

  2. Object:

    • Must consist of money, fungible goods, or specific personal property in the case of commodatum.
    • Object must be lawful, possible, and determinate.

  3. Cause or Consideration:

    • Gratuitous (mere liberality of lender) or onerous (interest as compensation).

IV. RULES AND LEGAL PRINCIPLES

  1. Delivery as a Requisite for Perfection (Article 1934):

    • A loan is perfected upon delivery of the thing or money to the borrower.

  2. Obligation to Return (Article 1933):

    • The borrower is required to return the equivalent sum of money or goods.

  3. Interest (Articles 1956-1957):

    • Express Stipulation Required:
      Interest cannot be demanded unless agreed upon in writing.
    • Usury Law:
      Interest rates are governed by Republic Act No. 3765 (Truth in Lending Act) and Central Bank regulations.
      While the Usury Law ceiling has been lifted, the interest rate must still be reasonable; otherwise, courts may reduce excessive rates.

  4. Liability for Fortuitous Events (Article 1942):

    • In a simple loan, the borrower generally bears the loss of the object unless:
      • Delay in returning it has occurred.
      • The borrower has used the object for purposes other than agreed upon.

  5. Prescriptive Period for Recovery of Loans (Article 1149):

    • Actions to recover debts prescribe after ten (10) years from the time the obligation became due and demandable, unless a shorter period applies.

  6. Gratuitous Commodatum (Articles 1935-1941):

    • The lender cannot demand the return of the thing loaned until the expiration of the stipulated term or after the purpose of the loan is achieved.
    • Borrower’s liability: The borrower must exercise extraordinary diligence and is liable for losses due to their negligence.

  7. Right to Compensation (Article 1278):

    • Debts arising from loans may be subject to compensation if both parties are creditors of each other, provided all conditions under Article 1279 are met.

V. COMMON TYPES OF LOANS IN THE PHILIPPINES

  1. Personal Loans:

    • Unsecured loans for personal expenses.

  2. Mortgage Loans:

    • Loans secured by real property, subject to the rules on contracts of mortgage.

  3. Salary Loans:

    • Loans offered to employees, often secured by future salaries.

  4. Pawning (Pledge):

    • Delivery of personal property as security for a loan, governed by Article 2085 et seq.

  5. Bank Loans:

    • Governed by special laws and regulations of the Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas.

VI. OBLIGATIONS OF THE PARTIES

  1. Obligations of the Borrower:

    • To pay the principal and interest (if stipulated) on the due date.
    • To exercise diligence in the use of the borrowed object (commodatum).
    • To return the equivalent amount or object at the agreed-upon time.

  2. Obligations of the Lender:

    • To deliver the object of the loan.
    • To allow the borrower to use the object for the agreed purpose (commodatum).

VII. REMEDIES IN CASE OF DEFAULT

  1. Demand for Payment:

    • Formal demand is necessary unless expressly waived.

  2. Foreclosure:

    • Applicable in loans secured by collateral such as mortgages or pledges.

  3. Judicial Action:

    • Lenders may file civil actions to collect the debt.

  4. Right of Retention (Article 1912):

    • In commodatum, the lender may retain the thing loaned if the borrower owes other obligations.

  5. Legal Interest:

    • In the absence of stipulation, legal interest (currently 6% per annum as prescribed by jurisprudence) may be imposed.

VIII. SPECIAL LAWS GOVERNING LOANS

  1. Truth in Lending Act (R.A. 3765):

    • Requires lenders to disclose the full cost of credit, including interest rates and other charges.

  2. Anti-Money Laundering Act (R.A. 9160):

    • Regulates large transactions, including loans, to prevent illicit activities.

  3. Magna Carta for Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (R.A. 9501):

    • Provides for government-backed credit facilities for MSMEs.

This comprehensive guide provides the key aspects of loan agreements under Philippine law, combining principles from the Civil Code and relevant jurisprudence.

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