Prescription | Different Modes of Acquiring Ownership | PROPERTY, OWNERSHIP, AND ITS MODIFICATIONS

CIVIL LAW > IX. PROPERTY, OWNERSHIP, AND ITS MODIFICATIONS > C. Different Modes of Acquiring Ownership > 4. Prescription

Definition of Prescription

Prescription is a mode of acquiring ownership or other real rights over property through the continuous and uninterrupted possession of the property for the period fixed by law. It can also refer to the loss of rights due to inaction or neglect over a certain period.

Legal Basis

The Civil Code of the Philippines governs prescription under Articles 1106 to 1155.

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Classification of Prescription

1. Acquisitive Prescription (Usucapion):

   • Refers to the acquisition of ownership or real rights through possession.
   • Further classified as:
     • Ordinary Acquisitive Prescription
     • Extraordinary Acquisitive Prescription

2. Extinctive Prescription:

   • Refers to the loss of a right or the bar of an action due to the lapse of time.
   • It prevents claims, actions, or rights from being enforced after the prescriptive period.

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Requisites for Acquisitive Prescription

1. Object of Prescription:

   • The property must be susceptible to prescription.
   • Public property, except patrimonial property of the State, is not subject to acquisitive prescription (Article 1113).

2. Possession:

   • Possession must be in the concept of an owner (not merely as a lessee, usufructuary, or caretaker).
   • Possession must be:
     • Actual
     • Peaceful
     • Public
     • Continuous
     • Uninterrupted

3. Lapse of the Prescriptive Period:

   • The time required depends on the type of possession (with or without just title and good faith).

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Ordinary Acquisitive Prescription

1. Requisites:

   • Just title.
   • Good faith.
   • Possession for:
     • 10 years for immovable property.
     • 4 years for movable property.
   • Just Title: A juridical act or document that is valid but insufficient to transfer ownership.

2. Good Faith:

   • Refers to the reasonable belief that the possessor owns the property without any defect or flaw in the title.

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Extraordinary Acquisitive Prescription

1. Requisites:
   • No need for just title or good faith.
   • Possession for:
     • 30 years for immovable property.
     • 8 years for movable property.
   • Applicable even if possession started in bad faith.

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Requisites for Extinctive Prescription

1. Susceptibility:

   • The right must be susceptible to prescription.
   • Non-prescribable rights include state claims, rights of spouses, and family relations.

2. Lapse of Prescriptive Period:

   • The period varies depending on the action:
     • 1 year: Action to recover movable property or damages for injury caused by negligence.
     • 4 years: Actions involving fraud.
     • 5 years: Actions to enforce judgments.
     • 10 years: Actions for obligations not covered by a specific prescriptive period.
   • In the case of real property rights, the period is generally 30 years.

3. No Legal Interruption:

   • Legal interruption occurs when a judicial demand or extrajudicial claim is made before the expiration of the prescriptive period.
   • Interruption resets the prescriptive period.

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Interruption and Suspension of Prescription

1. Interruption:

   • Judicial summons or acknowledgment by the debtor interrupts the period (Article 1155).
   • Possession becomes interrupted by physical or legal acts that prevent its continuity.

2. Suspension:

   • Prescription does not run in certain instances:
     • Between spouses during marriage.
     • Between parents and children during minority or incapacity.
     • Between co-owners (until partition is made).

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Rules on Prescription of Public Lands

• Public land is generally non-prescribable unless classified as patrimonial property.
• A person may acquire rights over public land through adverse possession for 30 years if classified as disposable or alienable land of the public domain.

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Key Jurisprudence

1. Heirs of Malabanan v. Republic (G.R. No. 179987, 2009):

   • Clarifies that prescription does not run against the State unless the property is alienable and disposable.

2. Republic v. Court of Appeals (G.R. No. 108734, 1996):

   • Distinguished between patrimonial and public property for purposes of prescription.

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Important Provisions from the Civil Code

• Article 1106: Prescription applies to actions and rights subject to modification by law.
• Article 1113: Public property is not subject to prescription unless classified as patrimonial.
• Articles 1117-1127: Discuss specific rules for acquisitive prescription.
• Articles 1139-1155: Address extinctive prescription, including special rules for various actions.

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Exceptions to Prescription

• Property classified as:
  • Inalienable or outside the commerce of man.
  • Owned by religious organizations (if dedicated for worship).
• Rights barred by public policy, such as human rights violations or environmental claims.

By adhering to the above requisites and conditions, prescription becomes a vital tool in the legal framework for both the acquisition and extinguishment of rights.

Reduction and Revocation | Donation | Different Modes of Acquiring Ownership | PROPERTY, OWNERSHIP, AND ITS MODIFICATIONS

CIVIL LAW: REDUCTION AND REVOCATION OF DONATIONS

Under Philippine law, specifically governed by the Civil Code of the Philippines, the reduction and revocation of donations are mechanisms to safeguard certain legal principles such as justice, equity, and public policy. Below is a detailed discussion on the matter, focusing on the grounds, processes, and legal consequences.

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I. Definition and Purpose

• Reduction refers to the diminution of the amount or value of a donation when it infringes on the legitime of compulsory heirs.
• Revocation involves the cancellation or annulment of the donation due to specific legal grounds.

These mechanisms exist to balance the rights of the donor, donee, and third parties, particularly the heirs of the donor.

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II. Legal Grounds for Reduction

Article 771 of the Civil Code provides for the reduction of donations that impair the legitime of compulsory heirs. The following must be satisfied:

1. Existence of Compulsory Heirs: The donor must have heirs who are entitled to a legitime.
2. Impairment of the Legitime: The donation must diminish or violate the reserved share of compulsory heirs.
3. Sufficient Proof of Impairment: A formal computation of the legitime and disposable portion must demonstrate that the donation is excessive.

Process of Reduction

1. Judicial Action: A compulsory heir must file an action for reduction in court.
2. Computation of the Net Estate: Includes deductions for debts, liabilities, and expenses.
3. Determination of Excess: Establish whether the donation exceeds the donor's free disposal portion.
4. Reduction: The donation is reduced proportionally, starting with the most recent donations (Article 774).

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III. Legal Grounds for Revocation

Revocation of donations may occur under specific circumstances enumerated under the Civil Code:

1. Grounds for Revocation

1. Failure to Comply with Conditions (Article 764):
   • A donation may be revoked if the donee fails to fulfill conditions expressly imposed by the donor.
2. Acts of Ingratitude (Article 765):
   • A donor can revoke a donation if the donee commits:
     • An offense against the donor.
     • Acts of moral damage against the donor's family.
     • Refusal to support the donor in cases where the donee is legally required to do so.
3. Birth, Appearance, or Adoption of a New Compulsory Heir (Article 760):
   • If a new heir is born, appears, or is adopted after the donation, and such an heir was not foreseen at the time of donation, revocation may be demanded.

2. Process of Revocation

1. Demand for Return: The donor may initially demand the return of the property from the donee.
2. Judicial Action: If the donee refuses to return the property voluntarily, the donor must file a case in court.
3. Time Limitation:
   • For ingratitude, the action must be filed within one year from the knowledge of the offense.
   • For failure to fulfill conditions, the action depends on the stipulations in the deed of donation.
4. Effects of Revocation: Upon revocation, the donee must return the donated property, including its fruits and any improvements, subject to reimbursement for necessary expenses.

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IV. Effects on Third Parties

• Donations affecting third parties are subject to the rules on registration and publicity:
  1. Registered Properties: If the donated property is immovable and has been registered, third parties acting in good faith are protected.
  2. Unregistered Properties: If the donation has not been registered, revocation or reduction retroactively invalidates the transfer, affecting third-party buyers.
• Lien for Improvements: Third parties or donees who have made improvements in good faith may claim reimbursement for the value of those improvements.

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V. Revocation and Reduction Distinguished

Aspect	Reduction	Revocation
Grounds	Impairment of legitime	Ingratitude, new heir, failure to fulfill conditions
Who Can File	Compulsory heirs	Donor (or heirs under certain cases)
Purpose	Protect legitime	Rescind donation
Timeframe to File	Generally linked to estate settlement	Prescribed by law or contract

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VI. Public Policy Considerations

• Donations are presumed irrevocable unless grounded on legal causes under the Civil Code.
• Revocation is disfavored and strictly construed due to the voluntary and gratuitous nature of donations.
• Reduction prioritizes family rights and inheritance laws over individual preferences.

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VII. Practical Applications

• Estate Planning: Donors must consider their compulsory heirs' legitime to avoid reduction of donations.
• Contracts: Deeds of donation must clearly stipulate conditions to prevent ambiguity.
• Litigation: Heirs and donees must preserve records and evidence for potential disputes.

In conclusion, the reduction and revocation of donations under Philippine law are essential safeguards that balance the donor's intentions, the donee's rights, and the legitimate claims of compulsory heirs. Understanding these principles ensures fairness and adherence to the law.

Prohibited donations | Donation | Different Modes of Acquiring Ownership | PROPERTY, OWNERSHIP, AND ITS MODIFICATIONS

Prohibited Donations in Civil Law (Philippines)

Under the Civil Code of the Philippines, the law sets forth specific provisions regulating donations, including clear restrictions on certain types of donations. These prohibitions aim to safeguard public interest, morality, fairness, and protect parties from undue influence or impropriety. Below is a comprehensive breakdown of the legal framework on prohibited donations:

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1. Basis in Law

The primary source of law on prohibited donations in the Philippines is Articles 739 to 752 of the Civil Code.

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2. Categories of Prohibited Donations

A. Donations Void Due to Public Policy or Illegality

Under Article 739, the following donations are deemed void:

1. Donations Made Between Persons Guilty of Adultery or Concubinage

   • Both the donor and donee must have committed the act knowingly.
   • Proof of guilt is required, either by judicial declaration or conclusive evidence.
   • Donations made to third parties (e.g., in favor of children born out of adulterous relationships) may still be subject to this prohibition if intended to circumvent the law.

2. Donations Made Between Persons Guilty of the Same Criminal Offense

   • The criminal offense must be proven, and the donation must be connected to the crime.
   • This includes bribery and corrupt acts intended to consummate or reward criminal activity.

3. Donations Made to Defraud Creditors

   • Donations with the intent to prejudice creditors by reducing the donor's assets are void.
   • Creditors may challenge such donations through an accion pauliana (revocatory action).

4. Donations Made to Public Officials or Employees in Violation of Anti-Graft Laws

   • Donations intended to secure a favor or undue advantage in public office are prohibited.

B. Donations Void Due to Lack of Capacity

Under Articles 738 and 1027, the following individuals are prohibited from receiving donations:

1. Persons Incapacitated to Inherit Due to Grounds of Unworthiness

   • Examples include persons who:
     • Are guilty of acts enumerated in Article 1032, such as attempting to kill the donor or committing acts of fraud against them.

2. Persons Convicted of Crimes Against the Donor’s Honor

   • Acts of libel, slander, or moral turpitude may render the donee incapable of receiving a donation.

C. Prohibited Donations Under Special Laws

Certain statutes supplement the Civil Code’s prohibitions:

1. Anti-Graft and Corrupt Practices Act (RA 3019)

   • Public officials are prohibited from receiving gifts or donations related to their office.
   • Violations may lead to criminal liability.

2. Code of Conduct and Ethical Standards for Public Officials (RA 6713)

   • Prohibits the acceptance of donations by public officials and employees, particularly from entities seeking government contracts or permits.

3. Family Code of the Philippines

   • Donations between spouses during the marriage are void except for moderate gifts on special occasions (Article 87).
   • The prohibition aims to prevent undue influence and protect family property.

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3. Form and Capacity

To be valid, donations must comply with formalities and requirements set out in the law:

• Article 748: Donations of movable property exceeding PHP 5,000 require a written form.
• Article 749: Donations of immovable property must be in a public instrument.

If formalities are not observed, even donations that do not fall under the prohibited categories may be invalidated.

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4. Remedies Against Prohibited Donations

1. Declaration of Nullity

   • Donations falling under the prohibited categories are considered void ab initio.
   • Legal action may be initiated to have such donations declared null and void.

2. Accion Pauliana

   • Creditors may annul donations intended to defraud them by proving the following:
     • Prior right of the creditor.
     • Prejudice caused by the donation.
     • Fraudulent intent.

3. Forfeiture of Donations

   • Under anti-corruption laws, improperly received donations may be subject to forfeiture in favor of the government.

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5. Exceptions to Prohibitions

• Moderate Gifts on Special Occasions
  • The law permits reasonable donations between spouses or to public officials, provided these do not contravene existing anti-corruption laws.
• Donations for Humanitarian Purposes
  • Donations that are made without any corrupt intent or undue influence may be exempted from certain prohibitions under a good faith doctrine.

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6. Legal and Practical Implications

• Individuals entering into donation agreements should assess the legality of the donation and the capacity of the parties involved.
• Public officials, spouses, and individuals with criminal or fraudulent history must exercise caution as their capacity to receive donations is legally restricted.

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This meticulous framework ensures that donations are conducted lawfully, equitably, and in compliance with both public and private interests. For specific cases, consultation with a legal expert is advised to navigate the nuances of donation law effectively.

Form | Donation | Different Modes of Acquiring Ownership | PROPERTY, OWNERSHIP, AND ITS MODIFICATIONS

CIVIL LAW

IX. PROPERTY, OWNERSHIP, AND ITS MODIFICATIONS

C. Different Modes of Acquiring Ownership

3. Donation

f. Form

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Under Philippine Law, donations are a mode of acquiring ownership whereby a person (the donor) voluntarily transfers ownership of a thing or right to another person (the donee) without any consideration or for less than adequate consideration. The form of donations is meticulously governed by the Civil Code of the Philippines, particularly under Articles 748 to 750 for formal requirements and related provisions under property and succession laws.

1. General Rule on the Form of Donations

The form of a donation depends on the nature of the property donated and the value of the donation. The Civil Code establishes clear guidelines for formality to ensure enforceability and protect against fraud or undue influence.

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A. Donation of Movable Property

• Applicable Law: Article 748, Civil Code of the Philippines.
• Form Requirements:
  1. Oral Donation: Allowed only if the value of the donated movable property is 5,000 pesos or less.
     • Must be accompanied by simultaneous delivery of the thing or document representing the right.
  2. Written Donation: Required if the value exceeds 5,000 pesos.
     • Must comply with general principles of contracts: consent, object, and cause.
  3. Delivery: Regardless of the value, actual or constructive delivery is essential for the validity of the donation. Without delivery, ownership is not transferred.

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B. Donation of Immovable Property

• Applicable Law: Article 749, Civil Code of the Philippines.
• Form Requirements:
  1. Public Instrument: The donation must be made in a public document (notarized deed of donation).
     • The public instrument must contain a clear description of the property being donated to identify it with certainty.
  2. Acceptance:
     • The donee’s acceptance must also be in the same public instrument or in a separate public instrument.
     • If the acceptance is in a separate instrument, the donor must be notified in an authentic manner (e.g., written acknowledgment, registered mail).
  3. Registration:
     • For real property, the deed of donation must be registered with the Registry of Deeds to affect third parties. However, lack of registration does not invalidate the donation between the parties.

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C. Donation Through Succession

• Applicable Law: Articles 728 and 752, Civil Code.
• Donations mortis causa must comply with the formalities of a last will and testament:
  1. Must be in writing.
  2. Must adhere to the formalities of a will (notarial or holographic).
  3. Can be revoked by the donor during their lifetime.

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2. Donation with Burden (Mode)

A donation may include a burden or condition imposed by the donor. In this case:

• Form: Follows the form required for donations of the specific type of property (movable or immovable).
• Acceptance: The donee must explicitly accept not only the donation but also the burden or obligation.
• Failure of the donee to comply with the burden may lead to revocation of the donation.

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3. Revocation and Reduction

Certain formal defects or conditions may render a donation void or revocable:

• Violation of Form: Donations that fail to meet the form requirements are null and void.
• Excessive Donations: Donations exceeding the portion of disposable free property may be reduced in favor of compulsory heirs during estate settlement under the rules on legitime (Article 760, Civil Code).

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4. Special Forms of Donations

A. Donation Propter Nuptias (Prenuptial Donation)

• Form Requirements:
  1. Must be made in a public document.
  2. Subject to the rules on donations of immovable property if the subject is real property.

B. Conditional and Modal Donations

• Conditional donations require the fulfillment of a condition for the donation to take effect.
• Modal donations impose an obligation on the donee to use the property for a specific purpose.
  • Both must adhere to the same form required for the principal donation.

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5. Nullity for Lack of Form

• Absolute Nullity: Donations that do not adhere to the required form (e.g., oral donation of immovable property) are considered absolutely void. They produce no legal effect and cannot transfer ownership.
• Exception: When a party invokes estoppel or acts in bad faith to deny the donation after receiving benefits.

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6. Tax Implications and Documentary Requirements

• Donations are subject to Donor’s Tax under the National Internal Revenue Code (NIRC).
• A Certificate Authorizing Registration (CAR) from the Bureau of Internal Revenue (BIR) is necessary for the transfer of real property.

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Conclusion

The formality of donations is vital to their enforceability. Compliance with the Civil Code's requirements ensures that donations are legally binding, protects the interests of both donor and donee, and avoids disputes or invalidations due to procedural defects.

Donations Mortis Causa as Testamentary Dispositions | Donation | Different Modes of Acquiring Ownership | PROPERTY, OWNERSHIP, AND ITS MODIFICATIONS

CIVIL LAW: Donations Mortis Causa as Testamentary Dispositions

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Donations mortis causa (DMC) are a legal mechanism under Philippine law that allows a person to transfer property ownership upon their death. Governed by the Civil Code of the Philippines and subject to the rules on wills, these dispositions bridge the principles of property law and succession.

Definition

A donation mortis causa is a donation made in contemplation of the donor’s death, which will take effect only upon the donor's demise and can be revoked by the donor at any time before death.

Characteristics

1. Post-Mortem Effect: The transfer of ownership does not take place immediately but only upon the donor’s death.
2. Revocability: The donor retains the right to revoke the donation during their lifetime.
3. Subject to Formalities of a Will: Donations mortis causa must follow the formalities required for wills, as specified under Articles 728 and 749 of the Civil Code.
4. Integration with Succession Law: The donation must not impair the legitime of compulsory heirs.

Requisites of Donations Mortis Causa

1. Donor’s Intention: The donor must intend the donation to take effect only upon death.
2. Formalities: The donation must comply with the formalities of a will:
   • If notarial: Must be executed in writing and signed by the testator in the presence of three credible witnesses.
   • If holographic: Must be entirely handwritten, dated, and signed by the testator.
3. Capacity: The donor must have testamentary capacity at the time of execution.
4. No Immediate Effect: The donee cannot take possession or ownership of the property during the donor’s lifetime.
5. Compliance with Laws on Succession: The donation must respect the legitime of compulsory heirs, as determined under Articles 887 and 904 of the Civil Code.

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Distinction Between Donations Mortis Causa and Inter Vivos

Aspect	Mortis Causa	Inter Vivos
Effectivity	Takes effect upon donor’s death	Takes effect during donor’s lifetime
Revocability	Always revocable	Generally irrevocable unless expressly reserved
Formalities	Follows rules on wills	Follows rules on donations
Possession/Ownership	Donee cannot take possession during donor’s lifetime	Donee acquires possession/ownership immediately
Tax Implication	Subject to estate tax	Subject to donor’s tax

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Formalities and Requirements

1. Compliance with Testamentary Formalities:
   Donations mortis causa must adhere strictly to the formal requirements for wills to avoid nullity:
   • Notarial Will: Written, signed by the testator and three witnesses, and notarized.
   • Holographic Will: Entirely handwritten, dated, and signed by the donor.
2. Express Revocability:
   The donation must explicitly state that it is revocable during the donor’s lifetime.
3. Prohibition Against Preemption:
   The donee cannot acquire rights over the donated property until the death of the donor.

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Effects of Non-Compliance

1. Nullity: A donation mortis causa executed without compliance with the formalities of a will is null and void.
2. Reduction for Inofficiousness: If the donation impairs the legitime of compulsory heirs, it may be reduced to the extent of the impairment.

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Revocation of Donations Mortis Causa

1. At the Donor’s Will: Donations mortis causa can be revoked unilaterally by the donor at any time before death without the need for just cause.
2. Modes of Revocation:
   • Express revocation through a subsequent will or codicil.
   • Tacit revocation through acts inconsistent with the intent to donate (e.g., alienation of the property during the donor's lifetime).

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Limitations and Prohibitions

1. Legitime Protection: Donations mortis causa cannot diminish the legitime of compulsory heirs. Any excess donation is subject to reduction.
2. Public Policy: Donations mortis causa must not contravene public policy or legal prohibitions (e.g., donations to disqualified persons under Articles 739 and 1027 of the Civil Code).

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Tax Implications

Donations mortis causa are included in the gross estate of the donor and are subject to estate tax. They are not subject to donor's tax as they are considered part of the succession process.

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Case Law Interpretations

Philippine jurisprudence has clarified various aspects of donations mortis causa:

1. Distinction from Conditional Donations Inter Vivos: The Supreme Court has emphasized that a donation mortis causa transfers no rights during the donor’s lifetime and is conditional upon death (e.g., Ramos v. Ramos).
2. Formalities: Courts strictly enforce compliance with testamentary formalities, declaring void those donations that fail to meet these requirements.
3. Revocability: Even if the donation is labeled as irrevocable, if it takes effect upon death, it is considered mortis causa and revocable by law.

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Conclusion

Donations mortis causa are testamentary dispositions that blend the principles of donations and wills. Compliance with the rules on testamentary formalities, respect for the legitime of heirs, and the donor's clear intention to transfer ownership only upon death are essential for their validity. Understanding the legal intricacies ensures proper drafting and avoids disputes during estate settlement.

Distinctions Between Mortis Causa and Inter Vivos Donations | Donation | Different Modes of Acquiring Ownership | PROPERTY, OWNERSHIP, AND ITS MODIFICATIONS

Distinctions Between Mortis Causa and Inter Vivos Donations

Donations are one of the modes of acquiring ownership under civil law. They are voluntary acts whereby one person disposes of a thing in favor of another, who accepts it. In Philippine law, donations are classified as either inter vivos or mortis causa, and these two types differ fundamentally in form, effects, and legal implications. Below is a meticulous exposition of their distinctions:

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1. Nature and Timing of Effectivity

• Donation Inter Vivos:

  • Takes effect during the lifetime of the donor.
  • Ownership is transferred upon acceptance by the donee, unless there is a stipulation of a suspensive condition.
  • It is irrevocable once perfected, except in cases allowed by law (e.g., ingratitude, non-fulfillment of conditions).

• Donation Mortis Causa:

  • Takes effect only upon the death of the donor.
  • The donor retains ownership and control of the property during their lifetime.
  • It is revocable at any time prior to the donor's death, as it is considered in the nature of a testamentary disposition.

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2. Legal Form

• Donation Inter Vivos:

  • Governed by the general rules on contracts and donations under the Civil Code.
  • Must comply with formalities based on the value of the donation:
    • If the property is movable and the value exceeds PHP 5,000, the donation must be in writing.
    • If the property is immovable, the donation must be in a public instrument, and acceptance must also be in writing or in the same public document.

• Donation Mortis Causa:

  • Governed by the rules on wills and succession.
  • Must comply with the formalities of a will:
    • For a notarial will, it must be in writing, signed by the testator, and attested by at least three witnesses.
    • For a holographic will, it must be entirely written, dated, and signed by the testator.
  • If these formalities are not followed, the donation is void.

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3. Cause or Motive

• Donation Inter Vivos:

  • The primary cause is gratuitousness and the intent to benefit the donee while the donor is alive.
  • The donor relinquishes control and ownership for the immediate advantage of the donee.

• Donation Mortis Causa:

  • The primary cause is the donor's intent to distribute their estate upon death, often as part of estate planning.
  • It is motivated by a desire to arrange the donor's property in contemplation of death.

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4. Ownership and Possession

• Donation Inter Vivos:

  • Ownership and possession are transferred to the donee upon delivery (actual or constructive) and acceptance.
  • The donor loses all rights to the property unless explicitly reserved.

• Donation Mortis Causa:

  • Ownership and possession remain with the donor during their lifetime.
  • The donee acquires ownership and possession only upon the donor’s death, subject to probate and the rules on succession.

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5. Revocability

• Donation Inter Vivos:

  • Generally irrevocable, except under specific grounds:
    1. Ingratitude of the donee.
    2. Non-fulfillment of conditions imposed in the donation.
    3. Legal reasons such as the subsequent birth of children (Article 760, Civil Code).

• Donation Mortis Causa:

  • Always revocable by the donor during their lifetime. The donor may modify or cancel it unilaterally at any time before death.

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6. Subject to Succession Laws

• Donation Inter Vivos:

  • Not subject to the rules on legitime (compulsory shares of heirs) unless it impairs the legitime of compulsory heirs. If it does, the donation may be reduced or considered inofficious.

• Donation Mortis Causa:

  • Always subject to succession laws, including legitime and probate. It cannot defeat the compulsory shares of heirs and is treated as an advance testamentary disposition.

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7. Delivery and Acceptance

• Donation Inter Vivos:

  • Requires acceptance by the donee, which must be either in the same document or a separate document duly communicated to the donor.

• Donation Mortis Causa:

  • No delivery or acceptance is required during the donor’s lifetime.
  • Acceptance occurs only after the donor’s death, subject to the donee's right to disclaim or renounce the donation.

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8. Tax Implications

• Donation Inter Vivos:

  • Subject to donor’s tax, which must be paid during the donor’s lifetime.
  • Exemptions and deductions apply depending on the law.

• Donation Mortis Causa:

  • Part of the donor’s estate and subject to estate tax upon death.

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9. Form of Instrument

• Donation Inter Vivos:

  • Document is titled as a Deed of Donation and executed in accordance with the rules on contracts.

• Donation Mortis Causa:

  • Document is part of a will or testamentary instrument and governed by rules of succession.

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10. Example Scenarios

• Donation Inter Vivos:

  • A parent donates a parcel of land to their child, and the donation is immediately registered in the child’s name.

• Donation Mortis Causa:

  • A parent stipulates in a will that a specific property will be given to their child upon their death.

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Summary Chart

Aspect	Inter Vivos Donation	Mortis Causa Donation
Effectivity	During donor’s lifetime	Upon donor’s death
Legal Form	Governed by rules on donations	Governed by rules on wills
Ownership	Transferred upon acceptance	Retained by donor until death
Revocability	Irrevocable (with exceptions)	Always revocable
Subject to Succession	Generally not, unless inofficious	Always subject to succession laws
Tax Implications	Subject to donor’s tax	Subject to estate tax

This detailed exposition provides a clear distinction between donation inter vivos and donation mortis causa, highlighting their fundamental differences and guiding individuals in choosing the appropriate legal instrument for transferring property.

Classification of Donation | Donation | Different Modes of Acquiring Ownership | PROPERTY, OWNERSHIP, AND ITS MODIFICATIONS

CIVIL LAW

IX. PROPERTY, OWNERSHIP, AND ITS MODIFICATIONS

C. Different Modes of Acquiring Ownership

3. Donation

c. Classification of Donation

Under Philippine Civil Law, the classification of donations is crucial for understanding their legal implications, formalities, and effects. Donations are governed by Articles 725 to 773 of the Civil Code of the Philippines, which set forth their nature, requisites, and types. The classification of donations can be outlined as follows:

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1. According to the Time of Effect

Donations may be classified based on when their effects occur:

a. Donations Inter Vivos

• Definition: Donations that take effect during the lifetime of the donor.
• Characteristics:
  • The donor intends to transfer ownership immediately.
  • Governed by the rules on contracts and obligations.
  • Irrevocable except in specific instances provided by law (e.g., ingratitude, non-compliance with conditions, or when the donor suffers economic hardship).
  • Requires formalities depending on the value:
    • If the value exceeds Php 5,000, it must be in writing.
    • If immovable property is involved, it must be made through a public instrument and comply with requirements of Article 749 (including acceptance by the donee).
  • Subject to reduction in cases of inofficiousness (exceeding the free portion of the estate).

b. Donations Mortis Causa

• Definition: Donations that take effect upon the donor’s death.
• Characteristics:
  • Considered part of the donor’s estate, similar to a disposition in a will.
  • Governed by the rules on succession.
  • Revocable at any time by the donor.
  • Must be executed in accordance with the formalities of a will (holographic or notarial) as prescribed in Articles 805–806 of the Civil Code.

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2. According to the Object

Donations are also classified based on the type of property donated:

a. Donation of Movable Property

• Formalities:
  • If the value is Php 5,000 or less, oral donations are valid but must involve immediate delivery of the object.
  • If the value exceeds Php 5,000, the donation must be made in writing.
• Example: A donor gives a car worth Php 500,000 to the donee via a written document, which must include the donee’s acceptance.

b. Donation of Immovable Property

• Formalities:
  • Must be executed in a public instrument.
  • The donee’s acceptance must also be in the same public instrument or in a separate public instrument notified to the donor.
  • Compliance with Article 749 is mandatory.
• Example: A donor transfers ownership of a parcel of land to the donee through a notarized deed of donation, and the donee accepts it formally.

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3. According to Purpose

The purpose behind the donation also classifies it as follows:

a. Pure Donation

• Definition: Donation made without any condition or burden imposed on the donee.
• Example: A person donates Php 1 million to a friend with no strings attached.

b. Conditional Donation

• Definition: Donation subject to a condition or future event, the fulfillment of which determines its effectivity or resolution.
• Types:
  • Suspensive Condition: Donation becomes effective only upon fulfillment of the condition.
    • Example: A donor promises a house to the donee once the donee graduates from law school.
  • Resolutory Condition: Donation is revoked upon the occurrence of a specified event.
    • Example: A donor donates a piece of jewelry but stipulates that it will revert to the donor if the donee divorces.

c. Onerous Donation

• Definition: Donation made with a burden, charge, or obligation imposed on the donee.
• Characteristics:
  • Governed by the rules on contracts due to its onerous nature.
  • The value of the burden must not exceed the value of the property donated; otherwise, it is considered a sale.
  • Example: A donor gives a building to a university on the condition that it is used exclusively for educational purposes.

d. Remuneratory Donation

• Definition: Donation made as a reward for services rendered to the donor.
• Characteristics:
  • Governed by the rules on contracts if the services have an ascertainable value.
  • Example: A donor gives a car to a loyal household helper in appreciation of years of service.

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4. According to Revocability

Donations are further categorized based on whether they can be revoked:

a. Irrevocable Donations

• Applies to donations inter vivos.
• Once perfected, the donation cannot be revoked except for legal grounds such as:
  • Ingratitude (Article 765).
  • Non-fulfillment of conditions.
  • Economic hardship of the donor, requiring recovery of donated property.

b. Revocable Donations

• Applies to donations mortis causa.
• The donor retains the power to revoke the donation at any time before death.

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5. According to Beneficiary

Donations may also be classified based on the intended recipient:

a. Private Donations

• Donations made to private individuals or entities.
• Governed by general rules on donations.

b. Public or Charitable Donations

• Donations made for public interest, such as for education, religion, or social welfare.
• Subject to special laws and tax incentives (e.g., donor’s tax exemptions under the Tax Code).

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6. Tax Implications

• Donor’s Tax: Imposed on the transfer of property by donation during the donor’s lifetime. Rates and exemptions are governed by the Tax Code of the Philippines (National Internal Revenue Code).
• Estate Tax: Applies to donations mortis causa as part of the donor’s estate.

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Summary

The classification of donations is fundamental in determining the legal requirements, validity, and effects of the transfer of ownership. It influences formalities, revocability, and tax liabilities. Practitioners must carefully assess the nature of the donation to ensure compliance with the Civil Code and other applicable laws.

Essential elements | Donation | Different Modes of Acquiring Ownership | PROPERTY, OWNERSHIP, AND ITS MODIFICATIONS

CIVIL LAW: PROPERTY, OWNERSHIP, AND ITS MODIFICATIONS

Donation: Essential Elements

Donation is a mode of acquiring ownership whereby a person, the donor, gratuitously transfers ownership of a thing or right to another, the donee, who accepts it. As governed by the Civil Code of the Philippines, donations are subject to specific essential elements and conditions, as detailed below.

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I. Definition of Donation

• Article 725 of the Civil Code defines donation as an act of liberality where a person disposes gratuitously of a thing or right in favor of another who accepts it.

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II. Essential Elements of a Valid Donation

To be valid, a donation must meet the following essential requisites:

A. Capacity of the Donor

1. Legal Capacity:

   • The donor must have the capacity to make a donation at the time of its execution. This includes:
     • Being of legal age.
     • Having full ownership of the property to be donated.
     • Possessing the free disposition of such property (i.e., free from liens or encumbrances unless agreed upon by the donee).

2. Prohibition to Donate:

   • Certain individuals are prohibited from making donations under the law:
     • Persons disqualified due to undue influence or public policy (e.g., guardians to wards, attorneys to clients during pendency of litigation).
     • Donations between spouses during the marriage are void, except for moderate gifts during family occasions (Article 87 of the Family Code).

B. Capacity of the Donee

1. General Rule:

   • The donee must have the capacity to acquire property or rights.

2. Prohibitions:

   • Persons prohibited by law from accepting donations include:
     • Incapacitated persons under legal disabilities.
     • The same classes of individuals mentioned in the prohibition to donate (e.g., those in fiduciary relationships).

C. Subject Matter

1. Requisites of the Object:

   • The donation must involve:
     • A thing or right which is determinate.
     • Property that the donor can lawfully dispose of at the time of the donation.

2. Exclusions:

   • Future property cannot be the subject of a donation (Article 751).
   • Donation cannot encroach upon the reserved legitime of compulsory heirs.

D. Cause or Consideration

1. Gratuitous Intent:
   • The donation must be made out of pure liberality. There should be no expectation of material compensation or equivalent benefit.

E. Acceptance

1. Express Acceptance:

   • The donee must expressly or impliedly accept the donation during the donor’s lifetime.
   • In donations of immovable property, acceptance must be in a public document to be valid.

2. Formality of Acceptance:

   • If the donation involves movable property, acceptance may be oral or written unless delivery has already been made.
   • If it involves immovable property, acceptance must be in the same public instrument or in a separate public instrument notified to the donor.

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III. Formalities of a Donation

A. Movable Property

1. Simple Donations (Less than PHP 5,000):

   • No specific formalities required; can be done orally or in writing.

2. Exceeding PHP 5,000:

   • Must be in writing, otherwise void.

B. Immovable Property

1. Requirement of a Public Instrument:
   • Donation and acceptance must both be in a public instrument, as mandated by Article 749.
   • If acceptance is made in a separate document, the donor must be notified for validity.

C. Conditional Donations

• If the donation is subject to a condition, such condition must be fulfilled for the donation to take effect. The condition must be lawful and possible.

D. Donations Mortis Causa

• Donations that take effect only after the donor’s death are governed by the formalities of wills (Articles 728-733).

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IV. Limitations on Donations

1. Prohibition on Inofficious Donations:

   • A donation is inofficious if it prejudices the legitime of compulsory heirs. Such donations are reduced to preserve the legitime.

2. Reversionary Clauses:

   • Donations may include clauses stipulating that property will revert to the donor or a third person upon the occurrence of a certain condition.

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V. Revocation or Reduction of Donations

1. Grounds for Revocation:

   • Non-fulfillment of a condition.
   • Acts of ingratitude by the donee (e.g., committing offenses against the donor).
   • Non-compliance with charges imposed by the donor.

2. Reduction Due to Inofficiousness:

   • The donation may be reduced to protect the reserved legitime of compulsory heirs.

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VI. Effects of Non-Compliance with Requisites

• A donation that does not meet the essential elements or formalities required by law is void or voidable, depending on the defect.

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VII. Practical Applications and Case Law

1. Case Precedents:

   • The Supreme Court has consistently upheld the need for strict compliance with the formalities, especially for donations of immovable property (e.g., Heirs of Bautista v. Lindo, GR No. 157033).
   • Failure to accept the donation in the prescribed manner renders the donation invalid.

2. Interpretation of Gratuitous Intent:

   • The courts evaluate the intent of the donor and the circumstances surrounding the donation to determine whether the act is truly gratuitous.

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VIII. Conclusion

The essential elements of a donation under Philippine law emphasize the importance of intent, capacity, formality, and acceptance to ensure its validity. Non-compliance with these requirements can invalidate the donation, making strict adherence critical for the protection of both donor and donee.

Concept and definition | Donation | Different Modes of Acquiring Ownership | PROPERTY, OWNERSHIP, AND ITS MODIFICATIONS

CIVIL LAW > IX. PROPERTY, OWNERSHIP, AND ITS MODIFICATIONS > C. Different Modes of Acquiring Ownership > 3. Donation > a. Concept and Definition

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Concept of Donation

Donation is a juridical act by which a person, called the donor, voluntarily transfers ownership of a thing or a right to another, called the donee, without any equivalent monetary consideration, with the intent to gratuitously enrich the latter. It is essentially an act of liberality, creating an obligation to deliver property or rights without expectation of reciprocity, subject to the acceptance of the donee.

The legal foundation of donations is found in the Civil Code of the Philippines, specifically Articles 725 to 773, which comprehensively regulate the nature, requisites, limitations, and effects of donations.

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Definition under Philippine Law

Under Article 725 of the Civil Code of the Philippines, a donation is defined as:

“An act of liberality whereby a person disposes gratuitously of a thing or right in favor of another, who accepts it.”

This definition establishes three critical elements:

1. Liberality - The primary intent of the donor is to enrich the donee without receiving anything in return.
2. Disposition - The donor must alienate or transfer ownership of the thing or right to the donee.
3. Acceptance - The donation must be accepted by the donee for it to take effect. Acceptance may be made explicitly or impliedly, but it must be manifested during the lifetime of both parties.

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Nature and Characteristics

1. Unilateral Act - The donation primarily emanates from the intent and will of the donor, though the donee’s acceptance is essential to complete the act.
2. Gratuitous - There is no monetary or equivalent consideration exchanged between the donor and the donee.
3. Formal and Onerous Elements - While generally a gratuitous act, some donations (e.g., onerous donations) may impose charges or conditions that must be complied with by the donee.
4. Irrevocability - Donations are generally irrevocable once perfected, except for specific grounds allowed by law (e.g., ingratitude or non-fulfillment of conditions).

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Requisites of Donation

1. Donor’s Capacity:

   • The donor must have the legal capacity to make a donation. This includes full ownership and legal capacity to dispose of the property being donated.
   • Persons incapacitated by law, such as minors and the insane, cannot make donations.
   • Donors must not donate property if such act would impair their family’s subsistence or violate mandatory provisions on legitimes.

2. Donee’s Capacity:

   • The donee must not be legally incapacitated to accept the donation.
   • Certain persons, such as public officers and their relatives, may be prohibited from receiving donations under specific circumstances, such as during their tenure in public service.

3. Subject Matter:

   • The property or right donated must be legally owned by the donor and capable of being transferred.
   • Future property cannot be the object of a donation.

4. Intent and Consent:

   • There must be clear intent from the donor to transfer ownership gratuitously.
   • Acceptance by the donee must be communicated and made within the donor’s lifetime.

5. Form:

   • Oral Donations: Allowed if the value of the donation is modest (typically personal property) and immediately delivered.
   • Written Donations: Required for real property and for personal property exceeding PHP 5,000 in value. Acceptance must also be in writing for validity.
   • Public Document: Donations of real property must be executed in a public instrument, and acceptance must be recorded in the same or a separate public instrument.

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Types of Donations

1. Inter Vivos - Donations made during the donor’s lifetime with immediate effect upon acceptance by the donee.

   • Governed by provisions under the law on donations.
   • Subject to limitations on donations affecting future legitimes or creditors’ rights.

2. Mortis Causa - Donations that take effect upon the donor’s death and are akin to testamentary dispositions.

   • Governed by the rules on succession.
   • Must comply with the formalities of a will under the Civil Code.

3. Onerous Donations - Donations that impose a burden, condition, or charge upon the donee.

   • The onerous element makes it subject to additional rules, treating it partially as a contract.
   • The value of the charge or condition may affect tax implications.

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Limitations and Prohibitions

1. Disposal of Family Property:

   • Donations cannot impair the legitime of compulsory heirs (Articles 752 and 772, Civil Code).
   • Donations are subject to rescission if they prejudice creditors' rights or exceed the donor’s capacity to dispose freely.

2. Prohibited Donees:

   • Certain individuals are disqualified by law from receiving donations, including:
     • Public officers and employees, their spouses, descendants, and ascendants, in connection with their office.
     • Religious leaders for acts directly related to their religious office.

3. Tax Implications:

   • Donations are subject to donor’s tax under the National Internal Revenue Code.
   • Proper valuation and compliance with tax obligations are prerequisites for the validity and enforceability of the donation.

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Grounds for Revocation

Under Article 760 to 768 of the Civil Code, donations may be revoked for specific reasons:

1. Ingratitude of the Donee:
   • The donee commits an offense against the donor or the donor’s family (e.g., crime, serious insults).
   • The donee fails to fulfill the conditions attached to the donation.
2. Non-compliance with Conditions:
   • Any failure to comply with an imposed charge or obligation can result in revocation.
3. Birth of Children:
   • A donation made by a childless donor can be revoked if a legitimate child is subsequently born.

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Effects of Donations

1. Transfer of Ownership:
   • Upon perfection and delivery, ownership is transferred to the donee.
2. Obligations of Donee:
   • The donee may be obligated to comply with conditions or charges attached to the donation.
3. Preservation of Donor’s Rights:
   • The donor may impose conditions to preserve rights, such as usufruct or revocation clauses.
4. Taxation:
   • Donations are subject to proper documentation and donor’s tax, ensuring compliance with the Bureau of Internal Revenue (BIR) regulations.

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This meticulous framework ensures that donations are properly regulated to balance the donor's intent with the rights and obligations of the donee, while protecting the interests of third parties, including creditors and compulsory heirs.

Donation | Different Modes of Acquiring Ownership | PROPERTY, OWNERSHIP, AND ITS MODIFICATIONS

CIVIL LAW > IX. PROPERTY, OWNERSHIP, AND ITS MODIFICATIONS > C. Different Modes of Acquiring Ownership > 3. Donation

Definition of Donation

Under Article 725 of the Civil Code of the Philippines, donation is defined as:

"An act of liberality whereby a person disposes gratuitously of a thing or right in favor of another, who accepts it."

The essential elements of a donation are:

1. The reduction of the donor's patrimony (the donor must give something of value).
2. The increase in the donee's patrimony (the donee must receive and accept the gift).
3. The intent of liberality (an animus donandi or intention to donate must be present).

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Types of Donation

Donations may be classified as follows:

1. Inter Vivos:

   • A donation made during the donor's lifetime.
   • Governed by the rules on donations under the Civil Code.
   • Takes effect immediately upon acceptance.
   • Irrevocable unless explicitly provided by law (e.g., conditions or grounds for revocation).

2. Mortis Causa:

   • A donation that takes effect upon the donor’s death.
   • Governed by the rules on testamentary succession.
   • Must comply with the formalities of a will.
   • Revocable during the donor's lifetime.

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Formalities of Donations

1. Movable Property (Article 748):

   • If the value is less than PHP 5,000:
     • May be made orally or in writing.
     • Delivery is essential for validity.
   • If the value is PHP 5,000 or more:
     • Must be in writing.
     • Acceptance must also be in writing.

2. Immovable Property (Article 749):

   • Must be made in a public document (notarized).
   • Acceptance must also be made in a public document or in a separate public document.
   • The donee must be notified of the acceptance.

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Requisites for Valid Donation

1. Donor’s Capacity to Donate:

   • The donor must have the capacity to contract and dispose of his/her property.
   • Minors and incapacitated individuals cannot donate.

2. Donee’s Capacity to Accept:

   • The donee must have the capacity to contract.
   • The donation must not be contrary to law, morals, good customs, or public policy.

3. Acceptance by the Donee:

   • Express or implied.
   • Acceptance is essential to perfect the donation.
   • Must be communicated to the donor.

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Limitations on Donations

1. Excessive Donations:

   • Under Article 750, the donation cannot impair the donor's legitimate family obligations (e.g., the legitime of compulsory heirs).

2. Persons Disqualified from Being Donees (Article 739):

   • Those guilty of adultery or concubinage with the donor.
   • Persons found guilty of a crime against the donor or his/her family.
   • Public officers or their spouses/relatives within the fourth degree, in connection with donations made due to their official duties.

3. Prohibited Donations (Article 1027 and others):

   • Donations between spouses during the marriage are void, except in moderate gifts on occasions of family rejoicing.

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Revocation of Donations

1. Grounds for Revocation:

   • Non-compliance with conditions (Article 764).
   • Ingratitude of the donee (Article 765), which includes:
     • Committing a serious offense against the donor.
     • Impugning the donor’s legitimate family.
     • Refusing to support the donor in case of need.

2. Effects of Revocation:

   • The donated property must be returned to the donor or his/her heirs.
   • Alienations or encumbrances made by the donee in good faith are respected.

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Reduction of Donations in Case of Impairment of Legitime

1. Collation (Article 1061):

   • Donations inter vivos made by an heir are brought into the hereditary mass to compute the legitime of compulsory heirs.

2. Action for Reduction:

   • Compulsory heirs may file an action for reduction if the donation exceeds the free portion of the donor’s estate.

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Tax Implications of Donations

1. Donor’s Tax (National Internal Revenue Code):

   • Donations inter vivos are subject to donor’s tax.
   • The donor must file a donor's tax return within 30 days after the donation.
   • Exemptions include donations to accredited charities, government entities for public use, etc.

2. Documentary Stamp Tax:

   • Certain donations are subject to documentary stamp tax, depending on the nature of the property donated.

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Jurisprudence on Donations

1. Strict Construction of Donations:

   • Donations are strictly construed against the donor, as they are acts of liberality that reduce the donor’s patrimony.
   • Conditions and limitations imposed by the donor are to be interpreted in favor of the donor.

2. Proof of Intent:

   • Courts evaluate the donor’s intent (animus donandi) to determine the validity of a donation, especially in contested cases.

3. Compliance with Formalities:

   • Failure to comply with legal formalities results in the nullity of the donation, particularly for immovable property.

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By adhering strictly to these principles, the validity, enforceability, and fairness of donations are maintained in Philippine civil law.

Tradition | Different Modes of Acquiring Ownership | PROPERTY, OWNERSHIP, AND ITS MODIFICATIONS

CIVIL LAW > IX. PROPERTY, OWNERSHIP, AND ITS MODIFICATIONS > C. Different Modes of Acquiring Ownership > 2. Tradition

Tradition Defined

Tradition, derived from the Latin term "traditio," is a legal mode of transferring ownership of a corporeal thing through delivery. It signifies the actual or constructive transfer of possession from one person (the transferor) to another (the transferee), coupled with the intent to transfer ownership. Tradition is fundamental under Philippine Civil Law, as it ensures that the consensual transfer of property rights materializes into ownership.

Legal Basis

Tradition is governed by the Civil Code of the Philippines, particularly under provisions concerning the transfer of ownership and the law on obligations and contracts. Key articles include:

• Article 712: "Ownership and other real rights over property are acquired and transmitted by law, donation, testate and intestate succession, tradition, and prescription."
• Article 1459: "The thing sold must be delivered to the buyer in order to transfer ownership."
• Article 1496-1501: Define the rules governing tradition in contracts of sale.

Requisites of Tradition

1. Existence of a Just Title:
   • The transferor must have a valid cause or basis for transferring ownership, such as a contract of sale, donation, barter, or any juridical act creating the obligation to deliver.
2. Actual or Constructive Delivery:
   • There must be an overt act of delivery, whether physically (actual delivery) or symbolically (constructive delivery).
3. Intention to Transfer Ownership:
   • The transferor must intend to transfer ownership, and the transferee must intend to acquire ownership.
4. Capacity:
   • Both parties must have the legal capacity to enter into the transaction.

Modes of Tradition

Tradition may take different forms depending on the nature of the delivery and the circumstances of the transaction. These are classified as follows:

1. Actual Tradition (Traditio Corporalis):

• The physical handing over of the thing from the transferor to the transferee.
• Example: Handing over the keys to a car sold.

2. Constructive Tradition:

Constructive delivery occurs when physical delivery is substituted by juridical acts. The Civil Code recognizes the following forms of constructive tradition:

• Traditio Symbolica:

  • Delivery through symbolic acts, such as handing over the keys to a property or a document of title.
  • Example: Delivery of a warehouse receipt or keys to a house.

• Traditio Longa Manu:

  • Delivery by pointing out or identifying the thing to be delivered, enabling the transferee to take possession.
  • Example: A seller points to a piece of furniture sold within a warehouse.

• Traditio Brevi Manu:

  • Delivery where the transferee is already in possession of the thing but starts holding it in the capacity of owner.
  • Example: A lessee buys the leased property; there is no need for physical transfer.

• Constitutum Possessorium:

  • Delivery where the transferor retains possession of the thing but ceases to hold it in the capacity of owner.
  • Example: An owner sells a property but agrees to lease it back from the buyer.

3. Quasi-Tradition:

• Applies to incorporeal property (rights or intangibles), where the ownership is transferred through consent and the delivery of documents or other symbolic means.

4. Legal Tradition:

• Delivery imposed by law, such as when a court adjudicates ownership in a judicial sale or foreclosure proceeding.

Effects of Tradition

1. Transfer of Ownership:

   • Ownership is transferred only upon delivery, even if the price has not been paid, unless there is a stipulation to the contrary.
   • Exceptions:
     • Ownership may not transfer if the delivery is subject to a suspensive condition that has not been fulfilled.
     • Retention of ownership clauses (e.g., pacto de retro sale).

2. Risk of Loss:

   • The risk of loss transfers to the buyer upon delivery unless otherwise stipulated. This principle is tied to the doctrine of "res perit domino" (the thing perishes for the owner).

3. Good Faith Possession:

   • Tradition grants possession in good faith to the transferee, who may be protected under certain circumstances, such as acquiring property from a seller who did not have full ownership (subject to rules on double sales).

Tradition and Double Sales

Under Article 1544 of the Civil Code:

• Ownership is determined by:
  1. The first person to register the property in good faith.
  2. If none registered, the first to take possession in good faith.
  3. If none took possession, the buyer who presents the oldest title in good faith.

This underscores the importance of tradition in securing ownership over competing claims.

Limitations and Exceptions

1. Non-Delivery:
   • Ownership does not transfer if there is no delivery, even if the parties have a perfected contract.
2. Void Contracts:
   • Tradition cannot confer ownership if the underlying contract is void ab initio.
3. Property Under Legal Restrictions:
   • Certain properties (e.g., public lands, ancestral domains) cannot be transferred through tradition unless specific legal requisites are met.

Conclusion

Tradition is a cornerstone of the transfer of ownership in Philippine Civil Law. Its meticulous application ensures that ownership rights are transferred securely and in compliance with legal standards. Parties engaging in transactions must understand the nuances of tradition to safeguard their rights and obligations effectively.

Occupation | Different Modes of Acquiring Ownership | PROPERTY, OWNERSHIP, AND ITS MODIFICATIONS

CIVIL LAW: IX. PROPERTY, OWNERSHIP, AND ITS MODIFICATIONS

C. Different Modes of Acquiring Ownership > 1. Occupation

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Occupation, as a mode of acquiring ownership, is governed by Article 712 of the Civil Code of the Philippines, which provides that ownership is acquired by occupation, intellectual creation, law, donation, succession, and certain contracts. Among these, occupation is the original method of acquiring ownership over things that are res nullius or not owned by anyone.

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Key Elements of Occupation

Occupation requires the following elements:

1. Appropriation: The individual must take material possession of the thing with the intent to acquire ownership.
2. Res Nullius: The object of appropriation must not belong to anyone at the time of occupation.
3. Capacity to Acquire Ownership: The person must have the legal capacity to own property.
4. Compliance with Law: The act of occupation must be in accordance with applicable laws and regulations.

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Objects Susceptible to Occupation

1. Movable Property:
   • Wild Animals: Per Article 713, ownership is acquired by hunting or capturing animals in their natural state. This right is subject to limitations under special laws, such as wildlife conservation statutes.
     • Example: The Wildlife Resources Conservation and Protection Act (Republic Act No. 9147) regulates the capture of endangered species.
   • Lost Movables (Treasure Trove):
     • Treasure Trove: Under Article 438, hidden treasure consists of any hidden money, jewelry, or other precious objects, the ownership of which does not appear.
       • The finder of hidden treasure acquires 50% ownership if discovered on another person’s property with consent, unless otherwise agreed upon.
       • If found on one’s own property, the owner retains full ownership.
   • Abandoned Property: Movable property intentionally abandoned by the owner may be acquired through occupation.
2. Immovable Property:
   • Land: Land cannot generally be acquired by occupation, except in rare cases under specific laws, such as the Public Land Act (Commonwealth Act No. 141), which governs free patent applications for public lands.

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Limitations on Occupation

1. Public Domain: Articles 419-420 specify that property of public domain, such as rivers, lakes, and forests, cannot be appropriated unless expressly authorized by law.
2. Special Laws: Laws regulating natural resources (e.g., the Mining Act, Forestry Code) limit occupation to prevent the exploitation of resources.
3. Environmental Concerns: Occupation of wildlife and natural resources must comply with environmental regulations to preserve biodiversity and prevent illegal exploitation.

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Jurisprudence on Occupation

• Valenton v. Murciano (1903): The Supreme Court clarified that occupation applies to objects that are ownerless by nature (res nullius) or by abandonment. The court stressed the need for intent and physical possession to establish ownership.
• Cariño v. Insular Government (1909): Recognized the indigenous occupation and use of ancestral lands as a means of acquiring ownership under customary laws.

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Applications and Restrictions

1. Indigenous Practices: Occupation recognizes indigenous peoples’ rights under Republic Act No. 8371 (Indigenous Peoples' Rights Act), allowing ownership of ancestral domains and lands occupied since time immemorial.
2. Regulated Occupation:
   • Fishing Rights: Fishing in public waters may be subject to local ordinances and fisheries laws.
   • Hunting and Gathering: Specific licenses or permits may be required to occupy or collect natural resources.

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Comparative Analysis

1. Occupation in Philippine Context:
   • Predominantly applies to wild animals, abandoned movables, and hidden treasures.
   • Heavily regulated by special laws to ensure public interest and resource sustainability.
2. Occupation in International Law:
   • Similar to the principle of occupation under Roman Law and other civil law jurisdictions.
   • Recognizes the acquisition of ownership by first possession or capture, with adjustments for contemporary issues like environmental conservation.

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Conclusion

Occupation remains a fundamental, albeit limited, method of acquiring ownership in the Philippine legal system. While it is rooted in traditional property concepts, modern statutory frameworks and jurisprudence have imposed stringent requirements and limitations to ensure alignment with public policy, environmental sustainability, and respect for indigenous rights.

Different Modes of Acquiring Ownership | PROPERTY, OWNERSHIP, AND ITS MODIFICATIONS

CIVIL LAW > IX. PROPERTY, OWNERSHIP, AND ITS MODIFICATIONS > C. DIFFERENT MODES OF ACQUIRING OWNERSHIP

The Civil Code of the Philippines, under Book II (Property, Ownership, and its Modifications), lays down the rules and principles regarding the modes of acquiring ownership. These provisions outline how ownership is legally transferred, acquired, or vested in individuals or juridical entities. Below is a meticulous discussion on the different modes of acquiring ownership:

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1. ORIGINAL MODES OF ACQUIRING OWNERSHIP

Ownership is acquired originally when it does not depend on a previous owner. The following are the recognized original modes:

a. Occupation (Articles 712-713, Civil Code)

• Ownership is acquired by occupation when a person takes possession of things that are susceptible of ownership but are without an owner.
• Examples:
  • Appropriation of abandoned property.
  • Hunting and fishing, subject to regulations.
  • Finding of hidden treasure (Article 438, Civil Code) – ownership of hidden treasure may be acquired, partly or wholly, by the finder if discovery occurs on another’s property.

b. Intellectual Creation

• Intellectual property rights are acquired by creating original works such as literary, artistic, or scientific works, protected by special laws like the Intellectual Property Code (RA 8293).

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2. DERIVATIVE MODES OF ACQUIRING OWNERSHIP

Ownership is acquired derivatively when it is transmitted from a previous owner to another. The Civil Code enumerates various derivative modes:

a. Law

• Ownership can be acquired by operation of law, such as:
  • Succession (inheritance) under Articles 774-1105 of the Civil Code.
  • State acquisition of property for public use through eminent domain.

b. Donation (Articles 725-773, Civil Code)

• Ownership is acquired by voluntary transfer of property without consideration.
• Key types of donation:
  • Inter vivos (during the lifetime of the donor).
  • Mortis causa (takes effect upon the death of the donor, akin to a testamentary disposition).

c. Succession

• Ownership passes from the deceased to their heirs through intestate or testamentary succession.
• Intestate succession occurs when no valid will exists, while testamentary succession arises from a valid will.

d. Prescription (Articles 1106-1155, Civil Code)

• Ownership and other real rights can be acquired through the lapse of time, subject to the following conditions:
  • Ordinary prescription: Possession in good faith and with just title for 10 years.
  • Extraordinary prescription: Open, continuous, exclusive, and notorious possession for 30 years, without need of just title or good faith.

e. Tradition (Delivery of Property)

• Ownership of movable or immovable property is transferred through the delivery of the thing, accompanied by the intention to transfer ownership (Articles 712-719, Civil Code).
• Types of tradition:
  • Real tradition (physical delivery of the thing).
  • Symbolic tradition (e.g., delivery of keys to a warehouse where goods are stored).
  • Traditio longa manu (delivery by pointing out the thing).

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3. ACQUISITION BY CONTRACTS (Article 712, Civil Code)

Contracts are the most common mode of acquiring ownership in everyday transactions. Ownership is transferred through a perfected and consummated contract, such as:

• Sale (Articles 1458-1637, Civil Code).
• Exchange (Article 1638, Civil Code).
• Barter or other agreements where ownership is explicitly or impliedly transferred.

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4. ACCESSION (Articles 440-465, Civil Code)

Ownership includes the right to all that is produced by the property or that is incorporated or attached thereto. Modes of acquisition through accession include:

a. Natural Accession

• Includes the fruits of the property:
  • Natural fruits (e.g., harvest from crops).
  • Industrial fruits (e.g., products of factories).
  • Civil fruits (e.g., rent or lease income).

b. Artificial Accession

• Incorporation of improvements or structures made on one’s property by another.
  • Example: Builder in good faith acquires compensation if the landowner claims the improvement (Article 448).

c. Alluvium and Avulsion (Article 457-459, Civil Code)

• Alluvium: Gradual deposit of soil by river action belongs to the riparian owner.
• Avulsion: Sudden transfer of land by water flow belongs to the original owner but must be reclaimed within two years.

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5. ACQUISITION BY MIXTURE AND SPECIFICATION (Articles 466-475, Civil Code)

Ownership can also arise through processes involving material combination or transformation:

• Mixture:
  • If materials belonging to different owners are combined, ownership depends on mutual agreement or proportional contribution.
• Specification:
  • If a new thing is created from another’s materials, ownership may vest in the maker or the material owner, depending on circumstances like good faith and value contribution.

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6. ACQUISITION BY THE STATE

The State may acquire ownership through:

• Eminent domain: Forcible acquisition of private property for public use upon payment of just compensation (Article III, Section 9, Constitution).
• Escheat: Property reverts to the State when a person dies without heirs or when properties are abandoned.

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7. MODES BASED ON SPECIAL LAWS

Ownership is also acquired under laws outside the Civil Code:

• Land Reform Laws: Transfer of ownership to farmer-beneficiaries (e.g., Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program under RA 6657).
• Mining and Natural Resources Laws: Ownership of extracted resources as governed by the Mining Act or similar statutes.
• Acquisition under Condominium Act (RA 4726): Ownership of individual units in a condominium project.

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IMPORTANT PRINCIPLES GOVERNING OWNERSHIP ACQUISITION

1. Capacity to Own: Legal capacity to acquire ownership must exist, subject to limitations (e.g., foreigners are restricted from owning land under the Constitution).
2. Public Order and Public Policy: Ownership must not be acquired through acts that violate public policy or public order.
3. Registration: For immovable property, acquisition must be registered in the Registry of Deeds to be enforceable against third parties.

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By these principles, the Philippine legal system ensures clarity and order in the acquisition and transfer of ownership, while safeguarding the rights of individuals, the public, and the State.

Modes of Extinguishment of Easements | Easements | Ownership | PROPERTY, OWNERSHIP, AND ITS MODIFICATIONS

Extinguishment of Easements in Civil Law (Philippines)

Easements, also known as servitudes, are rights enjoyed by one property (the dominant estate) over another (the servient estate). The extinguishment of easements is governed by the Civil Code of the Philippines, particularly under Articles 631 to 637. Below is a comprehensive analysis of the modes of extinguishment of easements:

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1. By Merger in the Same Owner

• Legal Basis: Article 631(1) of the Civil Code.
• Explanation: Easements are extinguished when the ownership of both the dominant and servient estates is consolidated in one person. When there is no separation of ownership, the need for the easement ceases.
• Example: If the owner of a lot with a right of way over an adjacent property purchases that adjacent property, the easement of right of way is extinguished.

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2. By Permanent Impossibility of Use

• Legal Basis: Article 631(2) of the Civil Code.
• Explanation: If the easement becomes permanently impossible to use due to natural or man-made causes, it is extinguished.
• Example:
  • A pathway easement becomes unusable because of a landslide that permanently blocks the area.
  • A right to draw water from a spring ends when the spring permanently dries up.

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3. By Prescription

• Legal Basis: Article 631(3) of the Civil Code.
• Explanation: Easements may be extinguished by non-use for the period required by law. This applies differently depending on whether the easement is positive or negative:
  • Positive Easements: These are extinguished by non-use for ten (10) years.
  • Negative Easements: These are extinguished when an act contrary to the easement is continuously performed for ten (10) years with the acquiescence of the dominant estate.
• Example:
  • A right of way easement not used by the dominant estate owner for 10 years is extinguished.
  • A prohibition against building a structure that blocks light and air is extinguished if the servient estate owner builds such a structure and the dominant estate owner does not object for 10 years.

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4. By Renunciation

• Legal Basis: Article 631(4) of the Civil Code.
• Explanation: An easement is extinguished when the owner of the dominant estate renounces it expressly or impliedly.
• Key Points:
  • Renunciation must be clear and unequivocal.
  • Express renunciation may be done in writing.
  • Implied renunciation may be inferred from acts that show abandonment.
• Example: If the dominant estate owner builds an alternative route, abandoning the use of a right of way, the easement may be deemed renounced.

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5. By Expiration of the Term or Fulfillment of a Condition

• Legal Basis: Article 631(5) of the Civil Code.
• Explanation: If the easement was established for a specific period or condition, its expiration or fulfillment extinguishes the easement.
• Example:
  • A right of way granted for ten years automatically expires after the lapse of the ten years.
  • An easement granted for the duration of a lease terminates when the lease ends.

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6. By Loss or Total Destruction of Either the Dominant or Servient Estate

• Legal Basis: Article 637 of the Civil Code.
• Explanation: If the dominant or servient estate ceases to exist, the easement is extinguished.
• Key Notes:
  • Loss must be total and permanent.
  • If only a part of the servient estate is lost, the easement may remain over the portion that still exists.
• Example:
  • A fire destroys the servient estate completely, rendering the easement unusable.
  • The dominant estate is submerged permanently due to natural causes, extinguishing any easements attached to it.

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7. By Change of Use or Substantial Alteration

• Legal Basis: Articles 634-635 (implied).
• Explanation: If the use for which the easement was established changes, and this change is incompatible with the easement's purpose, the easement may be extinguished. Substantial alterations to either estate may also render the easement moot.
• Example:
  • A right to draw water from a well is extinguished if the servient estate converts the well into a sealed structure for other purposes.

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8. By the Termination of the Necessity

• Legal Basis: Implied from the principle governing legal easements.
• Explanation: Easements of necessity are extinguished when the necessity ceases.
• Example: A right of way easement created because a property was landlocked is extinguished when the property gains direct access to a public road.

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Key Considerations in Extinguishment

1. Effect of Registration:

   • Easements registered under the Torrens system continue to appear on titles until a formal act removes them, even if extinguished in fact.
   • Parties must file the necessary documents to reflect the extinguishment in the Registry of Deeds.

2. Continuity Until Final Act:

   • Easements remain in force until the extinguishing event or action is conclusive.
   • Courts may be involved to determine if extinguishment has occurred.

3. Compensation:

   • In cases of extinguishment by acts of the servient estate (e.g., permanent obstruction), the dominant estate may seek compensation for damages if extinguishment was improper or unlawful.

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Summary Table of Modes of Extinguishment

Mode of Extinguishment	Legal Basis	Key Requirement	Example
Merger in the Same Owner	Article 631(1)	Ownership of both estates in one person	Dominant estate owner buys servient estate
Permanent Impossibility of Use	Article 631(2)	Impossibility must be permanent	Landslide blocks a right of way permanently
Prescription	Article 631(3)	10 years of non-use or contrary acts	Easement of light ignored for 10 years
Renunciation	Article 631(4)	Express or implied abandonment	Written waiver by dominant estate owner
Expiration or Fulfillment of Condition	Article 631(5)	End of term or condition	Easement expires after 10 years
Loss/Destruction of Estate	Article 637	Total and permanent loss	Fire destroys servient estate completely
Change of Use/Substantial Alteration	Articles 634-635 (implied)	Use changes incompatible with easement	Well covered permanently
Termination of Necessity	Implied	Necessity for the easement ceases	Landlocked property gains road access

This analysis provides an exhaustive understanding of the extinguishment of easements under Philippine law.

Rights and obligations of the dominant and servient estate | Easements | Ownership | PROPERTY, OWNERSHIP, AND ITS MODIFICATIONS

CIVIL LAW: PROPERTY, OWNERSHIP, AND ITS MODIFICATIONS

IX. Easements

Rights and Obligations of the Dominant and Servient Estates

An easement is a real right imposed on a corporeal immovable property for the benefit of another immovable property owned by another person. The property burdened by the easement is the servient estate, while the property that benefits from the easement is the dominant estate. Below is an exhaustive discussion of the rights and obligations of both estates:

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1. Rights of the Dominant Estate

The dominant estate, as the beneficiary of the easement, has the following rights:

a. Right to Use and Benefit from the Easement

• The dominant estate can use the easement as granted or provided by law, without exceeding its limits.
• Example: In a right-of-way easement, the dominant estate owner can pass through the servient estate as needed for access.

b. Right to Maintenance

• The dominant estate has the right to maintain the easement to ensure its use.
• This includes cleaning, repairing, or improving the easement area, provided it does not impose undue burden on the servient estate.

c. Right to Modify the Easement

• Modifications may be made to suit the needs of the dominant estate as long as:
  1. The nature or burden of the easement is not altered.
  2. The servient estate does not suffer any additional prejudice.
  • Example: Widening a path in a right-of-way easement is permissible if reasonable and does not exceed the agreed-upon terms.

d. Right to Demand Compliance

• The dominant estate may demand that the servient estate respects the easement and refrains from acts that interfere with its lawful use.

e. Right to Compensation in Case of Damages

• If the servient estate damages or obstructs the easement, the dominant estate may claim compensation for the harm caused.

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2. Obligations of the Dominant Estate

The dominant estate has the following obligations to ensure the equitable use of the easement:

a. Respect the Limits of the Easement

• The dominant estate must not exceed the scope of the easement as stipulated by law, contract, or prescription.
• Example: If the easement grants access for pedestrians, using it for vehicular passage is not allowed.

b. Bear Maintenance Costs

• The dominant estate bears the cost of maintaining the easement unless agreed otherwise.
• If both estates benefit from the easement, costs are shared proportionally.
• Example: For a drainage easement, the dominant estate pays for repairs to the drainage system.

c. Avoid Causing Additional Burden

• The dominant estate must exercise its rights without causing unnecessary inconvenience or harm to the servient estate.

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3. Rights of the Servient Estate

The servient estate, as the property burdened by the easement, retains the following rights:

a. Right to Ownership and Enjoyment

• The servient estate owner retains ownership of the property, including all uses not inconsistent with the easement.
• Example: In a right-of-way easement, the servient estate owner may use the surrounding land as long as the easement is not obstructed.

b. Right to Demand Proper Use

• The servient estate owner can demand that the dominant estate respects the limits of the easement and does not abuse its rights.

c. Right to Compensation for Damages

• If the dominant estate’s use of the easement causes damage, the servient estate owner has the right to seek indemnification.

d. Right to Relocate the Easement

• Under Article 629 of the Civil Code, the servient estate owner may relocate the easement if:
  1. The relocation is at their expense.
  2. The new location is equally convenient for the dominant estate.

e. Right to Extinguishment of the Easement

• The servient estate owner may seek extinguishment of the easement under circumstances provided by law, such as:
  1. Merger of the dominant and servient estates.
  2. Permanent cessation of the use or necessity of the easement.
  3. Expiry of the agreed-upon duration.

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4. Obligations of the Servient Estate

The servient estate must comply with the following obligations:

a. Allow the Exercise of the Easement

• The servient estate must permit the dominant estate to use the easement without interference.

b. Refrain from Obstruction

• The servient estate must avoid acts that impede the exercise of the easement.
• Example: Blocking a pathway in a right-of-way easement is prohibited.

c. Bear Costs if Benefiting from the Easement

• If the servient estate also benefits from the easement, it must share in the maintenance costs proportionally.
• Example: In a party wall easement, both estates share repair expenses.

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5. General Principles Governing Easements

The rights and obligations of both estates are governed by the following principles:

a. Principle of Least Prejudice

• The easement must be exercised in a way that causes the least burden to the servient estate.
• Example: A dominant estate should use the shortest and least intrusive path in a right-of-way easement.

b. Principle of Exclusivity to the Dominant Estate

• The easement is exclusively for the benefit of the dominant estate and cannot be extended to third parties without the servient estate’s consent.
• Example: A dominant estate cannot allow neighbors to use its right-of-way easement.

c. Non-Waiver of Legal Easements

• Legal easements (e.g., those for drainage or support) cannot be waived or renounced to the detriment of public interest.

d. Strict Interpretation of Limitations

• Restrictions on the servient estate’s rights are interpreted strictly, while the easement's use is interpreted broadly to benefit the dominant estate.

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6. Judicial Remedies

Both estates may avail of legal remedies to enforce their rights:

a. Dominant Estate

• Injunction: To prevent obstruction or interference by the servient estate.
• Damages: To recover for losses caused by non-compliance.

b. Servient Estate

• Injunction: To prevent abuse or excessive use of the easement by the dominant estate.
• Extinguishment: To nullify the easement when grounds for termination arise.

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Relevant Legal Provisions

The rights and obligations are primarily governed by the Civil Code of the Philippines (Articles 613-657). Key provisions include:

1. Article 628: Costs of maintenance fall on the dominant estate.
2. Article 629: Relocation of easements by the servient estate.
3. Article 630: Proportional sharing of costs when both estates benefit.
4. Article 631: Grounds for extinguishment.
5. Article 634: Principles of least prejudice.

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This thorough understanding ensures the harmonious coexistence of the dominant and servient estates and equitable enforcement of their rights and obligations.

Modes of Acquiring Easements | Easements | Ownership | PROPERTY, OWNERSHIP, AND ITS MODIFICATIONS

Modes of Acquiring Easements Under Civil Law

Under Philippine Civil Law, easements (also referred to as servitudes) are limitations imposed on a property for the benefit of another property or a person. The Civil Code of the Philippines, primarily in Articles 613 to 657, governs easements. This section delves into the various modes by which easements may be acquired.

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1. By Title (Article 622)

Easements may be established by title, which refers to a lawful agreement or legal provision that creates the servitude. This includes:

• Contracts: Voluntary agreements between property owners.
• Wills: Testamentary dispositions that impose an easement.
• Law: Certain easements are created by explicit legal provision (e.g., legal easements like drainage or party walls).

Key Points:

• The title must be clear, express, and specific.
• Formalities: Easements created by agreement must adhere to formalities under the law, particularly for immovable property. These agreements typically require public instruments and registration with the Registry of Property to affect third parties.
• Good Faith Requirement: Both parties must act in good faith when entering into agreements for easements.

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2. By Prescription (Article 620)

An easement may be acquired through continuous and apparent use for the period required by law, based on the principle of acquisitive prescription.

Essential Elements:

• Continuous Use: The use of the easement must not be intermittent; it must occur regularly.
• Apparent: The easement must have visible and permanent signs indicating its existence (e.g., a pathway or drain).
• Legal Time Period: Under Article 620, easements are prescribed after ten years of continuous and apparent use. This prescriptive period is counted as follows:
  • From the time the use of the easement began (for positive easements).
  • From the time the servient estate owner obstructed the easement (for negative easements).

Limitations:

• Negative easements (e.g., prohibiting construction above a certain height) cannot be acquired by prescription unless explicitly recognized under law.

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3. By Law

Certain easements are imposed by operation of law to address societal or practical necessities, even without the consent of the property owners. These are known as legal easements (Articles 634 to 647). Examples include:

• Right of Way (Article 649): Granted to ensure access to a property that is otherwise landlocked.
• Drainage of Waters (Article 637): Requires lower-lying estates to accept natural water flow from higher estates.
• Light and View Easements (Articles 667–668): Regulates the right to open windows or install structures in proximity to neighboring properties.
• Party Walls and Boundaries (Articles 658–666): Establish shared obligations for dividing structures.

Characteristics:

• Legal easements are typically mandatory and cannot be renounced if doing so contravenes public interest.
• They often involve just compensation to the servient estate owner when applicable.

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4. By Destination of the Owner (Article 624)

An easement may be deemed created when a single owner subdivides their property, assigning portions to different owners, and leaves parts of the property in a state that suggests an intention to create an easement.

Key Points:

• Single Ownership: The owner must have originally owned both the dominant and servient estates.
• Apparent Use: The easement must be continuous and apparent before the subdivision (e.g., a pathway connecting one parcel to another).
• Subsequent Transfer: The division of ownership by sale, donation, or other means transfers the implied easement to the respective properties.

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5. By Necessity

Easements may arise out of necessity when the use of the servient estate is indispensable to the enjoyment of the dominant estate.

Example:

• Right of Way: If a property becomes landlocked (without access to a public road), the law grants the owner the right to demand a right of way over neighboring properties.

Requirements:

• No other access to the public road exists.
• The path chosen for the easement is least prejudicial to the servient estate.
• The dominant estate owner pays just compensation.

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6. By Usucapion (Customary Law)

This mode applies in regions where customary laws recognize easements through long-standing, habitual practices, provided they are not contrary to public policy or law.

Considerations:

• Must still meet the general requirements of continuous, apparent use.
• Governed by local customs or ordinances.

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Other Relevant Principles

1. Apparent and Non-Apparent Easements (Article 620):

   • Only apparent easements can be acquired by prescription or destination of the owner. Non-apparent easements (those without physical signs) require explicit agreement or title.

2. Voluntary Grant vs. Imposition by Law:

   • Voluntary easements depend entirely on the will of the parties involved, while legal easements are imposed irrespective of the owner's consent.

3. Burden and Benefit:

   • Easements run with the land, meaning they attach to the property and transfer with ownership unless otherwise stipulated.

4. Registration Requirement:

   • To protect third parties, easements must be duly recorded in the Registry of Property.

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Summary Table of Modes of Acquiring Easements

Mode	Legal Basis	Characteristics
Title	Articles 613, 622	Requires a lawful agreement, public instrument, and registration.
Prescription	Article 620	Continuous, apparent use for at least 10 years.
By Law	Articles 634–647	Legal easements imposed for public or private necessity, often involving compensation.
Destination of Owner	Article 624	Implied easement arising from subdivision of a formerly unified estate.
Necessity	Articles 649, 651	Imposed when indispensable for the enjoyment of the dominant estate (e.g., right of way).
Customary Law	Article 620, Local Law	Recognized under specific customary practices, provided they do not contravene general laws or policies.

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By understanding these modes, property owners and legal practitioners can navigate the complexities of easement acquisition and resolve disputes effectively. Always consult relevant case law and jurisprudence for context-specific applications.

Kinds of Easement | Easements | Ownership | PROPERTY, OWNERSHIP, AND ITS MODIFICATIONS

Kinds of Easements under Philippine Civil Law

Easements, or servitudes, are encumbrances imposed on an immovable for the benefit of another immovable belonging to a different owner. They are governed by the provisions of the Civil Code of the Philippines (Republic Act No. 386, Articles 613-707). Below is a meticulous breakdown of the kinds of easements, categorized and explained.

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I. As to their Origin

1. Voluntary or Conventional Easements

   • Created by the will of the parties, typically formalized through a contract or last will and testament.
   • Examples:
     • Easement of passage granted via agreement.
     • Right to construct a balcony over a neighbor’s property through a notarized contract.

2. Legal Easements

   • Imposed by law for public utility, private necessity, or communal interest.
   • Examples:
     • Easement of drainage of waters (Art. 637).
     • Easement of right of way for landlocked properties (Art. 649).

3. Natural Easements

   • Arise from the natural condition of the land.
   • Examples:
     • Easement for lower estates to receive waters flowing naturally from higher estates (Art. 637).

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II. As to the Use

1. Positive Easements

   • Allow the dominant owner to perform an act on the servient estate.
   • Examples:
     • Easement to draw water from a well on the servient estate.
     • Right to build a projecting eave over the servient property.

2. Negative Easements

   • Restrict the servient owner from doing an act that would otherwise be permissible.
   • Examples:
     • Prohibition against constructing a building that blocks the view of the dominant estate.
     • Restriction against planting tall trees that would block sunlight.

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III. As to the Beneficiary

1. Personal Easements

   • Benefit a specific person and terminate upon their death or other specified condition.
   • Examples:
     • Easement allowing an individual to cross private property for their personal use.

2. Real Easements

   • Attach to the dominant estate and pass on to subsequent owners.
   • Examples:
     • Easement of light and view benefiting a particular parcel of land.

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IV. As to the Object

1. Continuous Easements

   • Operate without human intervention once established.
   • Examples:
     • Easement of drainage of water.
     • Easement of support (e.g., walls supporting adjoining buildings).

2. Discontinuous Easements

   • Require human intervention or activity for their use.
   • Examples:
     • Easement of passage.
     • Easement of aqueduct to transport water.

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V. As to Apparentness

1. Apparent Easements

   • Evidenced by visible or external signs that indicate their use and existence.
   • Examples:
     • A pathway worn into the ground indicating an easement of passage.
     • Drainpipes crossing the servient estate.

2. Non-Apparent Easements

   • Lack visible or external indications of their use.
   • Examples:
     • Prohibition against planting trees of certain heights (negative easement).
     • Easement restricting certain construction activities.

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VI. Specific Kinds of Easements Recognized in the Civil Code

1. Right of Way (Art. 649)

   • A legal easement granted to owners of landlocked properties to access the nearest public road.
   • Conditions:
     • Must pay compensation to the servient estate owner.
     • Route must cause the least damage or inconvenience.

2. Drainage of Waters (Art. 637)

   • Lower estates are obliged to receive water naturally flowing from higher estates.
   • Includes rainwater and other natural flows.

3. Aqueducts (Art. 648)

   • Allows the construction of water channels through the servient estate for irrigation or other uses.

4. Party Walls (Art. 658)

   • Shared walls between adjoining properties, the maintenance and use of which are governed by special rules.

5. Light and View (Art. 670-673)

   • Prohibits obstructing windows or openings providing light and view.
   • Conditions apply for distances and the type of construction allowed.

6. Support (Art. 684-686)

   • Imposes an obligation on adjoining estates to provide mutual lateral support.
   • Prevents actions that would compromise the stability of adjacent properties.

7. Right to Overhang (Art. 681)

   • Grants permission for eaves to project over the neighboring estate, provided certain conditions are met.

8. Trees and Plants (Art. 679-680)

   • Easement prohibiting planting of trees too close to neighboring properties to avoid encroachment or nuisance.

9. Right to Construct Drains or Sewers (Art. 649)

   • Allows easement to dispose of waste through a servient estate.

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VII. Acquisition and Termination

Acquisition

1. By Title – Through contracts, wills, or court orders.
2. By Prescription – Continuous and adverse use for at least ten years.

Termination

1. By Merger – When the dominant and servient estates are owned by the same person.
2. By Renunciation – The dominant owner expressly waives the easement.
3. By Non-Use – For continuous easements, non-use for ten years; for discontinuous easements, non-use for ten years counted from each act of use.
4. By Expiry or Fulfillment – When a specified condition or period ends.

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Practical Application and Importance

Understanding the kinds of easements ensures:

• Clear property rights for both dominant and servient owners.
• Proper utilization of land in accordance with public policy.
• Avoidance of disputes by delineating rights and obligations.

Careful drafting of agreements and consulting legal professionals for contentious easements is critical to safeguarding interests.

Characteristics | Easements | Ownership | PROPERTY, OWNERSHIP, AND ITS MODIFICATIONS

Characteristics of Easements under Philippine Civil Law

Easements, also known as servitudes, are real rights that grant a person or a piece of property the ability to use another person's property or impose certain restrictions upon it. The characteristics of easements are governed by the Civil Code of the Philippines, primarily under Articles 613 to 707. Below is an exhaustive discussion of their key characteristics:

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1. Accessory Real Right

• An easement is an accessory real right; it cannot exist independently and must always be tied to a principal real right, usually ownership.
• The easement adheres to the property it burdens or benefits, rather than being tied to a specific person (in the case of real easements).

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2. Indivisibility

• Indivisibility of Easement: An easement cannot be divided. Even if the dominant or servient estate is divided among different owners, the easement continues to exist in its entirety for each portion, provided that the easement is applicable to the entirety of the property.
• Example: A right of way easement remains intact regardless of the partition of the dominant estate.

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3. Perpetuity (Generally)

• Easements are presumed to be perpetual unless explicitly stipulated as temporary.
• Easements often attach permanently to the dominant and servient estates, meaning they endure for as long as the properties themselves exist, unless otherwise terminated by legal means.

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4. Impossibility of Ownership of the Easement Alone

• Easements cannot be owned separately from the property to which they pertain. They are tied to the dominant or servient estate and cannot be transferred independently.

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5. Limitations on Ownership

• Easements inherently limit the servient owner’s rights over their property, as the servient estate must allow the exercise of the easement.

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6. No Positive Obligation to Perform (Generally)

• An easement typically does not require the servient owner to perform an active obligation (e.g., providing maintenance). Instead, the servient estate must passively allow the dominant estate to exercise its right.
• Exception: When stipulated or required by law, the servient owner may bear certain responsibilities, such as maintaining structures necessary for the easement.

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7. Inherently Imposed on Property, Not Persons

• Easements primarily pertain to property, not to the individual owner of the servient or dominant estate. They are passed to successors-in-interest of the estates involved.

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8. Classification of Easements

Easements can be classified based on their characteristics:

a. By Use

• Positive Easements: Allow the dominant estate to perform an act on the servient estate (e.g., right of way).
• Negative Easements: Restrict the servient estate from performing an act (e.g., prohibiting the construction of a structure that blocks light or view).

b. By Creation

• Voluntary Easements: Established by agreement or will of the parties.
• Legal Easements: Mandated by law for public interest or necessity (e.g., right of way for landlocked properties).

c. By Apparency

• Apparent Easements: Perceived through external indications or signs (e.g., a visible pathway).
• Non-apparent Easements: Have no visible indicators (e.g., a prohibition against building).

d. By Connection

• Continuous Easements: Exercised continuously without human intervention (e.g., drainage of water).
• Discontinuous Easements: Require human intervention for their exercise (e.g., right of way).

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9. Requisites for Valid Easement Creation

• Proper Dominant and Servient Estates: There must be two distinct properties involved—one benefitting (dominant estate) and one bearing the burden (servient estate).
• Lawful Cause or Title: Easements must have a legal or contractual basis.
• Public or Private Benefit: Easements may exist for the benefit of private properties or the general public.

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10. Modes of Creation

• By Law: Legal easements are imposed for necessity or public benefit (e.g., easement for water drainage).
• By Contract or Agreement: Parties may voluntarily create an easement through mutual consent, subject to proper registration.
• By Prescription: Easements may be acquired through continuous and adverse use for a specific period (generally 10 years for immovables).
• By Destination of the Owner: When an owner of a property separates it into two parts, creating an apparent and continuous use that suggests an easement.
• By Necessity: When an easement is indispensable for the use or enjoyment of the dominant estate (e.g., right of way for landlocked property).

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11. Extinguishment of Easements

• Easements may be terminated by:
  1. Merger of Estates: When the dominant and servient estates come under the same ownership.
  2. Permanent Impossibility of Use: When the easement becomes permanently unusable (e.g., destruction of the servient estate).
  3. Non-Use (Prescription): Continuous non-use of the easement for a specific period (10 years for immovables).
  4. Renunciation by Dominant Estate Owner: The owner of the dominant estate may renounce the easement explicitly.
  5. Expiration of the Period: If the easement was created with a specific time limit.
  6. Mutual Agreement: The parties involved may agree to extinguish the easement.

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12. Easements in Favor of the Public Interest

• Certain easements are created for public welfare, such as easements for light and air, water use, and passage. These are often imposed by law and cannot be waived or ignored.

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13. Obligations of the Servient and Dominant Estate Owners

• Servient Estate Owner:
  • Allow the dominant estate to exercise the easement without obstruction.
  • Refrain from any act that impairs the easement.
• Dominant Estate Owner:
  • Use the easement without exceeding its purpose.
  • Maintain structures or improvements necessary for the easement at their expense unless otherwise agreed.

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Conclusion

Easements are a critical component of property law, balancing the rights of owners with the practical needs of access, utility, and benefit. Their perpetual nature, indivisibility, and reliance on lawful cause highlight the importance of careful creation, execution, and registration to ensure proper enforcement under Philippine law.

Concept of Easement | Easements | Ownership | PROPERTY, OWNERSHIP, AND ITS MODIFICATIONS

CIVIL LAW: EASEMENTS – CONCEPT OF EASEMENT

Definition and Nature

An easement (also known as a servitude) is a real right constituted over the property of another, which allows the owner of the dominant estate (the property benefiting from the easement) to use or enjoy the property of the servient estate (the property subject to the easement) in a specific manner or to prevent the servient estate owner from exercising certain rights over their property.

The governing provisions on easements in the Philippines are found under Articles 613 to 682 of the Civil Code of the Philippines.

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Characteristics of Easements

1. Real Right: Easements attach to the property itself and are enforceable against subsequent owners.
2. Accessorial in Nature: They exist as a secondary right to ownership and cannot exist independently of a property.
3. Indivisibility: An easement is indivisible. It cannot be partially exercised over portions of the servient estate unless explicitly agreed upon.
4. May Be Perpetual: Once constituted, an easement generally lasts unless expressly terminated or extinguished by law, contract, or legal circumstance.
5. Not Transferable by Itself: Easements cannot be transferred independently of the dominant estate.

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Classification of Easements

Easements may be classified based on the following criteria:

1. As to Exercise:

   • Positive Easement: Entitles the dominant estate owner to do something on the servient estate (e.g., right of way, right to water).
   • Negative Easement: Restrains the servient estate owner from doing something (e.g., easement of light and view).

2. As to Apparency:

   • Apparent Easement: Can be perceived through external signs (e.g., a visible pathway).
   • Non-Apparent Easement: Has no external or visible signs (e.g., a prohibition on building a higher structure).

3. As to Constitution:

   • Voluntary Easement: Created by the will of the parties through a contract or agreement.
   • Legal Easement: Mandated by law to address specific needs or public interest (e.g., legal right of way).

4. As to Relationship to Property:

   • Real Easement: Constituted on immovable property for the benefit of another immovable property.
   • Personal Easement: Created for the benefit of a specific individual, not property.

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Requisites of a Valid Easement

1. Two Distinct Properties:

   • Dominant estate: The property benefiting from the easement.
   • Servient estate: The property burdened by the easement.

2. Ownership by Different Persons:

   • Easements generally require separate ownership of the dominant and servient estates.

3. Limitation on Use or Ownership:

   • The servient estate is either required to tolerate certain acts or refrain from exercising certain rights.

4. Compliance with Legal Formalities:

   • For voluntary easements, an agreement must be in writing, especially if immovables are involved (as per the Statute of Frauds).
   • Registration with the Registry of Property is needed to bind third parties.

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Modes of Establishing Easements

1. By Law:

   • Easements mandated by law to address public or private necessity (e.g., right of way for a landlocked property).

2. By Will of the Owners:

   • Created through contracts or testamentary dispositions.

3. By Prescription:

   • Continuous and apparent easements may be acquired through uninterrupted use over a period of 10 years (Articles 620 and 621, Civil Code).

4. By Destination of the Owner:

   • When the owner of both estates creates an easement and subsequently sells either estate (Article 624, Civil Code).

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Rights and Obligations of the Parties

1. Rights of the Dominant Estate:

   • Right to exercise the easement as constituted.
   • Right to make necessary improvements to enjoy the easement, provided no harm is caused to the servient estate.

2. Obligations of the Dominant Estate:

   • Must use the easement in a manner that causes the least burden to the servient estate.
   • Must maintain and repair any structures or modifications necessary for the exercise of the easement unless agreed otherwise.

3. Rights of the Servient Estate:

   • Retains ownership and can continue using the property in ways that do not impede the easement.
   • May demand indemnity if the easement causes substantial damage.

4. Obligations of the Servient Estate:

   • Must tolerate the use or restrictions imposed by the easement.
   • Must refrain from acts that would prevent the enjoyment of the easement.

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Legal Easements under the Civil Code

1. Right of Way (Article 649):

   • Owners of landlocked properties have a right of way through neighboring properties upon payment of proper indemnity.

2. Easement for Water:

   • Owners may demand water access for domestic or agricultural needs.

3. Easement of Light and View:

   • Restricts construction of structures that block light or create an obstruction.

4. Drainage of Waters:

   • Lower estates are obliged to receive waters from higher estates.

5. Easement of Party Wall:

   • Allows the shared use of a dividing wall between two properties.

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Modes of Extinguishment

Easements are extinguished in the following ways (Article 631, Civil Code):

1. Merger: When the dominant and servient estates are owned by the same person.
2. Abandonment: By the dominant estate, which must be express and unequivocal.
3. Expiration of Term: If the easement is constituted for a specific period.
4. Non-Use: Continuous non-use for 10 years for discontinuous easements, or for apparent easements if their purpose ceases.
5. Impossibility of Use: When circumstances permanently prevent the easement's exercise.
6. Destruction of the Servient Estate: If the servient property ceases to exist.

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Case Law Interpretations

Philippine jurisprudence emphasizes that easements must be exercised in good faith and in a manner least injurious to the servient estate. Courts strictly interpret easements, favoring minimal intrusion on property rights while balancing the necessity of the dominant estate's rights.

Conclusion

The concept of easements is vital in balancing property rights, ensuring practical access and utility while preserving the autonomy of property ownership. Proper understanding and adherence to the legal provisions governing easements are crucial for avoiding disputes and fostering harmonious property relations.

Easements | Ownership | PROPERTY, OWNERSHIP, AND ITS MODIFICATIONS

CIVIL LAW: IX. PROPERTY, OWNERSHIP, AND ITS MODIFICATIONS > B. OWNERSHIP > 9. EASEMENTS

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Easements, also known as servitudes, are among the most important property rights in civil law. They create a burden on one piece of land (servient estate) for the benefit of another (dominant estate) or for the benefit of a person or group. The provisions governing easements are primarily found in the Civil Code of the Philippines (Republic Act No. 386), particularly in Book II, Title VII (Articles 613–692). Below is a detailed discussion of this legal concept.

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1. Definition of Easement

An easement is defined as an encumbrance imposed on an immovable property for the benefit of another immovable property belonging to a different owner or for the benefit of a particular person or group.

• Two Types:
  • Real Easements: Benefit a dominant estate.
  • Personal Easements: Benefit a person or group directly.

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2. General Characteristics of Easements

1. Real Right: Easements are a form of real right, attaching to the property rather than the owner.
2. Indivisibility: Easements are indivisible. They cannot be divided if the servient or dominant estate is subdivided.
3. Non-possessory: The owner of the dominant estate or holder of the easement does not acquire possession of the servient estate but merely a limited use of it.
4. Accessory Nature: Easements are accessory to ownership, existing only in relation to immovable property.
5. Intransmissibility in Personal Easements: Personal easements are non-transferable unless explicitly allowed.

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3. Classification of Easements

A. As to Use or Purpose

1. Continuous vs. Discontinuous

   • Continuous: Operate without human intervention (e.g., a drainpipe).
   • Discontinuous: Require human intervention (e.g., a pathway).

2. Apparent vs. Non-Apparent

   • Apparent: Observable physical signs (e.g., a window).
   • Non-Apparent: No visible signs (e.g., right to not build above a certain height).

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4. Modes of Creation

Easements can be created in the following ways:

1. By Law (Legal Easements):

   • Mandatory and imposed by the Civil Code for the public or private interest.
   • Examples: Easements of drainage (Article 637), light and view (Article 668), and right of way (Article 649).

2. By Agreement (Voluntary Easements):

   • Established through contracts between property owners.
   • Requires compliance with the formalities for contracts involving real property (e.g., written form and registration).

3. By Prescription:

   • Continuous and apparent easements can be acquired through uninterrupted use for 10 years.

4. By Will:

   • The owner of an estate may establish an easement through a last will and testament.

5. By Title or Grant:

   • Arises when a specific easement is granted through a legal deed.

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5. Rights and Obligations

A. Dominant Estate

1. Rights:

   • Use the servient estate in accordance with the terms of the easement.
   • Demand the removal of obstacles to the exercise of the easement.
   • Transfer the easement if it is real and attached to the dominant estate.

2. Obligations:

   • Exercise the easement with the least inconvenience to the servient estate.
   • Perform any necessary maintenance unless otherwise agreed.

B. Servient Estate

1. Rights:

   • Retain ownership of the servient property.
   • Use the servient estate in ways not inconsistent with the easement.
   • Demand compensation for damages caused by the easement.

2. Obligations:

   • Allow the dominant estate to exercise the easement.
   • Refrain from acts that would impair the easement.

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6. Extinguishment of Easements

Easements can be extinguished through:

1. Merger: Ownership of the servient and dominant estates is consolidated in one person.
2. Abandonment: The dominant estate owner renounces the easement in a public document.
3. Expiration of Term or Fulfillment of Condition: If the easement is temporary or conditional.
4. Prescription: Non-use for 10 years in discontinuous easements or obstruction for 10 years in continuous ones.
5. Impossibility of Use: If the easement becomes permanently impossible to use.
6. Expropriation: If the government expropriates the servient estate for public use.

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7. Legal Easements

Examples of Legal Easements (Article 613 onwards):

1. Right of Way (Articles 649–657):

   • Necessary for a landlocked property to access a public road or resource.
   • Owner of the servient estate is entitled to indemnity.

2. Drainage of Waters (Articles 637–640):

   • Lower estates must accept water naturally flowing from higher estates.
   • Costs of artificial drainage borne by the dominant estate.

3. Support (Articles 685–687):

   • Obligations on owners of adjoining buildings to ensure stability.

4. Light and View (Articles 668–673):

   • Restrictions on building near windows or openings of an adjacent estate.

5. Party Walls and Fences (Articles 658–666):

   • Rights and obligations concerning shared walls or fences.

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8. Registration

• Easements must be registered to bind third parties.
• Non-registered easements may still be valid between the parties but are ineffective against third-party buyers in good faith.

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9. Case Law and Interpretation

Judicial interpretations of easements in the Philippines highlight these principles:

• The necessity of balancing the rights of the dominant and servient estates.
• The requirement of strict construction in favor of the servient estate.
• Recognition of easements as a tool to resolve conflicts between adjacent landowners.

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Conclusion

Easements form a critical part of property law, serving as mechanisms to reconcile individual property rights with practical necessities and communal harmony. Understanding their nuances is essential for navigating real property disputes and ensuring compliance with Philippine law.